(pl. ; ; ) was the position title for a female guard in Nazi concentration and extermination camps. Female camp personnel were members of the auxiliary organization, which served the (SS-TV) in a limited capacity as these women were not formally recognized as members of the (SS).
Background In April 1933, a workhouse in Moringen was made into a detention facility under Hanover administration. In November of that year, 141 women, the majority of whom were suspected or confirmed Communists, were imprisoned there. Prisoners usually stayed in Moringen for a few weeks before being released. The facility did not become one associated with reports of mistreatment, and group discussions were held daily to "re-educate". The facility closed in March 1938, and was replaced by the Lichtenburg concentration camp, which opened in Saxony in late 1937, and became known as the first SS-run women's concentration camp. It was commanded by SS- Max Koegel and staffed by recruited and conscripted women who worked as guards.
Heinrich Himmler directed the construction of a larger second women's concentration camp in November 1938, after Lichtenburg's limited capacity had become an issue due to a rising number of arrests. Ravensbrück commenced operations in May 1939, serving as the central camp for female prisoners. It was here that the position of was established.
On 1 September 1939, Hitler delivered a speech at the , in which he stated: "I expect every German woman to integrate herself into the great community-in-struggle in an exemplary fashion and with iron discipline!". This was the given order despite the views he held in regards to women: The (BDM) was in support of the 1939 speech and had it written in the organization's 1940 yearbook.
Recruitment and conscription Advertisements were posted in newspapers, such as the , which sought out German women between the ages of 20 and 40 to guard women who "committed an offense against the 'Volk community" at a "military installation". For women seeking employment or a higher pay, the job offer was enticing because of the free housing, prepared meals, and the absence of required qualifications. Although a small number of newspaper clippings have survived after the war, history professor Jack G. Morrison claims that the advertisements neglected to mention concentration camps.
In December 1942, the age range of 20–40 broadened and became 17–45 as tensions grew with the advancement of Allied forces and the 's loss in the Battle of Stalingrad. During this time, many women were recruited by the labor office, which became a source of contention in postwar testimonies. Johanna Langefeld, who was an at numerous concentration camps, stated in her testimony: "There were also cases in which women were sent by one of the labor offices to work as guards at Ravensbrück. This happened most often to women who had refused once or even twice to take the job that had been assigned to them, which meant they were likely to be arrested the next time they refused to take the work assigned to them".
The need for female guards in concentration camps became critical when Joseph Goebbels declared total war against Allied forces in his Sportpalast speech on 18 February 1943. Hitler raised the age limit for women's involvement to 50 and made employment in military equipment production mandatory in his 1943 and 1944 decrees pertaining to both male and female participation in the defense of the Reich. The 1943 order exempted individuals who worked at least 48 hours a week, employers of at least five workers, those working in agriculture or health services, pregnant women, and women with one child under the age of six or two children under the age of 14. Despite these measures, only a small number of women voluntarily sought out such work, resulting in an increase in SS recruiting and labor office conscriptions.
Acclimatisation and training When the Nazi Party realized that Nazi Germany was losing the war, concentration camp personnel destroyed many records, leaving little information regarding how were trained. Ravensbrück has the most preserved records on training practices, largely due to its role as the primary training camp for women from 1942 to 1945.
Upon arrival at Ravensbrück, the recruited and conscripted women were made to sign a slew of documents, including a declaration of confidentiality, a vow not to reprimand prisoners physically or verbally, and an oath of loyalty to Hitler and their superiors. The women were then led to their on-camp quarters. The ensuing training period lasted anywhere from one to six weeks, but as prospects were brought in at an increasing rate, this range decreased to just one week for some women. In June 1942, conscripted Anna David provided testimony of her arrival at Ravensbrück:
A three-month probationary period follows training, during which each prospective is partnered with an experienced who acts as a mentor and is tasked with overseeing a work detail. In 1939, Hermine Braunsteiner received mentoring from Maria Mandl, who was then the of Ravensbrück. In a postwar testimony, Braunsteiner states that all were taught how to "handle, shoot, and clean their service weapon".
According to Commandant's Order No. 3, issued 24 July 1942, new received ideological training every Saturday between five and six o'clock in the evening. As part of the curriculum, two antisemitic Nazi propaganda films were shown, including .
Membership Due to missing and destroyed documentation pre-liberation, the exact number of women who became between 1938 and 1945 has been disputed. Based on published literature and surviving evidence from numerous concentration camps, it is estimated that 3,500 women served as guards. Historian has further broken down this figure, estimating that 313 women were employed at Ravensbrück as camp personnel in late 1942 from payroll records. By late 1944, the total surpassed 3,000.
Ranks and uniforms
Braunsteiner has claimed that the first group of women assigned to Ravensbrück were only given blue smocks to wear. About a year later, prototype uniforms were supplied. In the first design, a light gray loden cloth jacket and culottes were worn with a blue blouse, black boots, and a light gray side cap. Only after Himmler's visit to Ravensbrück in the spring of 1940 did receive standardized uniforms. Two military gray uniforms, one for winter and one for summer, were provided, together with two pairs of boots, blouses, a cap, and sportswear. Hats and jewelry were prohibited, with the exception of the designated side cap or a straw hat on hot days.
To denote rank, uniforms displayed aluminium braiding on the shoulders and sleeves, as well as badges and awards such as the War Merit Medal Second Class.
Aufseherin means "female overseer". were in charge of conducting the daily roll call, or , allocating inmates to work details, and guarding prisoners. Name History Years of service Ref 1 bar Jenny-Wanda Barkmann at Stutthof 1944–1945 Erna Beilhardt at the Heiligenbeil subcamp of Stutthof 1944–1945 Erika Bergmann at Ravensbrück and its Genthin subcamp, and the Neurohlau subcamp of Flossenbürg 1943–1945 Johanna Bormann at Lichtenburg, Ravensbrück, Auschwitz II-Birkenau and its subcamp Hindenburg, and Bergen-Belsen 1939–1945 Hermine Böttcher Brückner at Ravensbrück and Majdanek. 1942–1945 Herta Bothe at Ravensbrück, Stutthof and its Bromberg-Ost subcamp, Auschwitz, and Bergen-Belsen 1942–1945 Irene Haschke at Gross-Rosen and its subcamp Mährisch-Weißwasser, and Bergen-Belsen 1944–1945 Ruth Elfriede Hildner at Ravensbrück, Dachau, and the Helmbrechts subcamp of Flossenbürg 1944–1945 Anneliese Kohlmann at the Neuengamme subcamps Neugraben and Hamburg-Tiefstack, and Bergen-Belsen 1944–1945 Hildegard Lächert at Majdanek, Auschwitz, Bolzano, and Mauthausen-Gusen 1942–1945 Ewa Paradies at Stutthof and its subcamp Bromberg-Ost 1944–1945 Margarete Rabe at Ravensbrück and its Uckermark subcamp 1944-1945 Erna Wallisch at Ravensbrück and Majdanek 1940-1945
means "female dog handler". There is little documentation on female dog handlers in concentration camps, with the only known name being that of Elfriede Rinkel, though it is assumed that they had similar training and responsibilities to their male counterparts. Himmler allegedly ordered for to not carry guns, though this is refuted by Braunsteiner's testimony, so some women were armed with German shepherds who Himmler demanded to be "trained to savage to death anyone except their handler". Name History Years of service Ref 1 bar with star Elfriede Rinkel at Ravensbrück 1944–1945
means "commanding officer", though the women with this title were just in charge of overseeing certain work details in a concentration camp. Name History Years of service Ref 1 bar with star Alice Orlowski at Ravensbrück and Majdanek; at Majdanek, Plaszow-Kraków, and Auschwitz II-Birkenau 1941–1945
and means "block leader". The terms , meaning "block senior" and blockova were the titles given to prisoners if they, like the appointed , were put in charge of maintaining order within their respective block. Name History Years of service Ref 1 bar with star Ulla Jürß and at Ravensbrück Elisabeth Lupka at Ravensbrück; at Auschwitz II-Birkenau 1943–1945
means "labor service leader". These women were in charge of assigning work details amongst the prisoners, maintaining efficiency within the concentration camp, and overseeing . Name History Years of service Ref 1 bar with star Greta Bösel at Ravensbrück 1944–1945 Elisabeth Hasse at the Auschwitz subcamps of Budy and Rajsko; at Auschwitz II-Birkenau Hilde Lobauer at Auschwitz II-Birkenau and Bergen-Belsen 1944–1945
means "report leader". coordinated daily schedules and work schedules from an office within the camp and received reports from other guards regarding any incidents, illnesses, and deaths. Name History Years of service Ref 1 bar with star Irma Grese at Ravensbrück, Auschwitz II-Birkenau, and in Bergen-Belsen 1942–1945
means "first supervisor".
Name History Years of service Ref Therese Brandl at the Dachau subcamp Mühldorf, at Ravensbrück and Auschwitz I, at Auschwitz II-Birkenau 1940–1945
means "head female overseer". were responsible for directing and supervising and reporting roll-call numbers to camp headquarters. In some camps, this position was equivalent to that of a . Name History Years of service Ref 3 aluminum stripes, 9mm aluminum collar braid; upper edge of hat has a silver-gray braid Jane Bernigau at Lichtenburg and Ravensbrück; at Gross-Rosen 1938–1945 Dorothea Binz and at Ravensbrück 1939–1945 Hermine Braunsteiner at Ravensbrück and Majdanek; at the Genthin subcamp of Ravensbrück 1939–1945 Gertrud Heise at Ravensbrück, Majdanek, Kraków-Płaszów, Auschwitz II-Birkenau, and Neuengamme; at the Obernheide subcamp; at the Obernheide subcamp of Neuengamme 1941–1945 Johanna Langefeld at Lichtenburg; at Lichtenburg, Ravensbrück and Auschwitz 1936–1945 Hildegard Neumann at Ravensbrück and Theresienstadt 1944–1945 Gerda Steinhoff at Stutthof and at its subcamps Danzig–Holm and Bromberg-Ost 1944–1945 Elisabeth Volkenrath at Auschwitz II-Birkenau and Bergen-Belsen 1941–1945 Emma Zimmer at Lichtenburg; at Ravensbrück and Auschwitz II-Birkenau 1938–1945
means "female chief senior overseer". Name History Years of service Ref Margarete Gallinat at Herzogenbusch 1940–1945 Anna Klein at Ravensbrück 1939–1945
, commonly shortened in literature as , means "camp leader". dealt with affairs concerning the prisoners at the concentration camp, coordinated with the Labor Squad office to appoint work details to prisoners, and worked closely with the subordinate .