Joseon missions to Japan represent a crucial aspect of the international relations of mutual Joseon-Japanese contacts and communication.한일관계사연구논집편찬위원회. (2005). 통신사・왜관과한일관계 (Han Il kwangyesa yŏngu nonjip), Vol. 6, p. 29. In sum, these serial diplomatic ventures illustrate the persistence of Joseon's gyorin (neighborly relations) diplomacy from 1392 to 1910.
The chronology of one side in a bilateral relationship stands on its own. This long-term, strategic policy contrasts with the sadae (serving the great) diplomacy that characterized Joseon-Chinese relations.Kang, Etsuko H. (1997). Diplomacy and Ideology in Japanese-Korean Relations: from the Fifteenth to the Eighteenth Century, p. 49. The unique nature of these bilateral diplomatic exchanges evolved from a conceptual framework of the tributary system of China. Gradually, the theoretical model would be modified. The changing model mirrors the evolution of a unique relationship between two neighboring states.Toby, Ronald P. (1991). State and Diplomacy in Early Modern Japan: Asia in the Development of the Tokugawa Bakufu, p. 87. In the 20th century, gyorin diplomacy failed.
Joseon diplomacy
General Yi Sŏng-gye (posthumously known as Taejo of Joseon) established the "Kingdom of Great Joseon" in 1392–1393, and he founded the Yi dynasty which would retain power on the Korean peninsula for five hundred years. An early achievement of the new monarch was improved relations with China; and indeed, Joseon had its origin in General Yi's refusal to attack China in response to raids from Chinese bandits.Hussain, Tariq. (2006). Diamond Dilemma: Shaping Korea for the 21st Century, p. 45; Hodge, Carl Cavanagh. (2008). Encyclopedia of the Age of Imperialism, 1800–1914: A-K, p. 401. The Joseon foreign policy would evolve from pre-existing foundations. For example, Goryeo envoy Chŏng Mong-ju travelled to Japan in 1377;Titsingh, Isaac. (1834). Annales des empereurs du japon, p. 313; Korea-Japan Relations> Middle Ages> 4. Waegu and the Korea-Japan Relationship. and the consequences of his efforts were only seen later.
As an initial step, a diplomatic mission was dispatched to Japan in 1402. The Joseon envoy sought to bring about the re-establishment of amicable relations between the two countries and he was charged to commemorate the good relations which existed in ancient times. This mission was successful, and shōgun Ashikaga Yoshimitsu was reported to have been favorably impressed by this initial embassy.Titsingh, p. 320. Subsequent missions developed and nurtured the contacts and exchanges between the two neighboring countries.
Not less than 70 diplomatic missions were dispatched from the Joseon capital to Japan before the beginning of Japan's Edo period.Lewis, James Bryant. Frontier contact between chosŏn Korea and Tokugawa Japan, p. 269 n. 89, citing Hanguk Chungse tae-il kysōpsa yŏngu (1996) by Na Chongpu. A diplomatic mission conventionally consisted of three envoys—the main envoy, the vice-envoy, and a document official. Also included were one or more official writers or recorders who created a detailed account of the mission.Walraven, Boudewign et al. (2007). Korea in the middle: Korean studies and area studies, p. 362. Artists were also included in the diplomatic delegation.
Reciprocal missions were construed as a means of communication between Korean kings and Japanese shōguns of almost equal ranking. The emperors of Japan at the time were figureheads with no actual political or military power; the actual political and military rulers of Japan with whom Joseon communicated were the shoguns who were represented as Tycoon of Japan in most foreign communications in order to avoid the conflict with the Sinocentric world order in which the emperor of China was the highest authority, and all rulers of tributary states were known as "kings".Kang, Diplomacy and Ideology, p. 206.
The history of Joseon Korea's diplomacy with Japan can be parsed in four parts: (a) before the Japanese invasions in 1592–1598; (b) in the context of the invasion; (c) after the invasion; and (d) in modern times.
Joseon missions to the Muromachi shogunate
The Joseon diplomatic contacts and communication with Japan encompassed formal embassies to the Muromachi bakufu. Joseon diplomacy also included the more frequent and less formal exchanges with the Japanese daimyo (feudal lord) of Tsushima Island.
In addition, trade missions between merchants of the area were commonplace. For example, more than 60 trade missions per year marked the period from 1450 through 1500.Ferris, William. (2009). Japan to 1600: A Social and Economic History, 181.
Year Sender Joseon chief envoy Japanese shōgun Official purpose1392Taejo – ?Ashikaga Yoshimitsu Re-establishment of amicable relations between the two countries, remembering good relations which existed in ancient timesTitsingh, Isaac. (1834). Annales des empereurs du japon, p. 320.1398TaejoPak Ton-ji.Kang, Diplomacy and Ideology, p. 275; Titsingh, p. 322Ashikaga Yoshimochi Response envoys; and seeking help in suppression of pirate fleets, called waegu (왜구) in Korean or wakō (倭寇) in Japanese, Ōuchi Yoshihiro let him visit and Ashikaga Yoshimitsu, the retired shōgun, sent him a letter with presentsKang, Diplomacy and Ideology, p. 275.1404TaejongYŏ ŬisonAshikaga Yoshimochi Response envoysKang, Diplomacy and Ideology, p. 275; Hall, John Whitney. (1997). The Cambridge History of Japan: Early Modern Japan, p. 242.1406TaejongYun MyŏngAshikaga Yoshimochi Response envoys1410TaejongYang SuKang, Diplomacy and Ideology, p. 39.Ashikaga Yoshimochi Response envoys; conveying condolences on the death of Yoshimitsu; and offering to send a copy of a rare Buddhist text.Titsingh, pp. 325–326.1413TaejongBak Bun?Ashikaga Yoshimochi –?1420SejongSong HŭigyŏngAshikaga Yoshimochi Response envoys1423SejongPak HŭichungKang, Diplomacy and Ideology, p. 72.Ashikaga Yoshikazu Response envoys; and transporting a copy of a rare Buddhist text.Titsingh, p. 330.1424SejongPak An-sinAshikaga Yoshikazu Response envoys1428SejongPak Sŏ-saengAshikaga Yoshinori Condolences on the death of Yoshimochi; conveying congratulations on the succession of Yoshinori1432SejongYi YeKang, Diplomacy and Ideology. p. 275; Lee, Sang Oak et al. (1998). Perspectives on Korea, p. 268.Ashikaga Yoshinori Response envoys1439 SejongKo TŭkchongAshikaga Yoshinori Neighborly relations; and asking help in suppression of expanded waegu (wakō) activities.1443SejongPyŏn HyomunKang, Jae-eun, and Suzanne Lee. (2006). The Land of Scholars: Two Thousand Years of Korean Confucianism, p. 241; Titsingh, p. 342.Ashikaga Yoshimasa Condolences on the death of Yoshinori; and conveying congratulations on the succession of Yoshikatsu
1392 In the 1st year of the reign of King Taejo of Joseon, a diplomatic mission was sent to Japan.
1398 In the 6th year of King Taejong's reign, a diplomatic mission was sent to Japan. Pak Tong-chi and his retinue arrived in Kyoto in the early autumn of 1398 (Ōei 5, 8th month). Shōgun Ashikaga Yoshimochi presented the envoy with a formal diplomatic letter; and presents were given for the envoy to convey to the Joseon court.Titsingh, p. 322.
1404 In the 4th year of King Taejong's reign, a diplomatic mission was sent to Japan.
1406 In the 6th year of King Taejong's reign, a diplomatic mission was sent to Japan.
1409–1410 In the 10th year of King Taejong's reign, an ambassador from the Joseon court was received in Kyoto. This event in 1409 (Ōei 16, 3rd month) was considered significant.Titsingh, pp. 325–326.
1413 In the 13th year of King Taejong's reign, a diplomatic mission was sent to Japan.
1420 In the 2nd year of the reign of King Sejong the Great, a diplomatic mission was sent to Japan.
1423 In the 5th year of King Sejong's reign, a diplomatic mission was sent to Japan.
1424 In the 6th year of King Sejong's reign, a diplomatic mission was sent to Japan.
1428 In the 10th year of King Sejong's reign, the Joseon court dispatched Pak Sŏ-saeng as chief envoy of a mission to the shogunal court of Ashikaga Yoshinori in Japan.
1432 In the 14th year of King Sejong's reign, a diplomatic mission was sent to Japan.Lee, Sang Oak et al. (1998). Perspectives on Korea, p. 268.
1439 In the 21st year of King Sejong's reign, a diplomatic mission was sent to Japan. The leader of this embassy to shōgun Yoshinori was Ko Tŭk-chong.
1443 In the 25th year of King Sejong's reign, an embassy was sent to the Japanese capital. Pyŏn Hyomun was the chief envoy sent by the Joseon court.Kang, Land of Scholars, p. 241; Titsingh, p. 342. The ambassador was received in Kyoto by Ashikaga Yoshimasa.
Joseon missions to Hideyoshi
After the fall of the Ashikaga shogunate, the Joseon diplomatic missions to Japan were dispatched to Toyotomi Hideyoshi, who emerged as an unchallenged strong man and leader after the death of Oda Nobunaga in 1582. The less formal contacts with the leaders of the Sō clan on Tsushima continued.
Diplomatic relations were severed in 1592 when Japanese armies invaded Joseon territory. The ruptured bilateral relations were not restored immediately after the death of Hideyoshi in 1598; the invading forces gradually withdrew from occupied land on the Korean peninsula.Kang, Diplomacy and Ideology, p. 86. By the end of 1598 all Japanese forces had left Korea, but relations would not be normalized until several years later, during the Tokugawa shogunate.
Year Sender Joseon chief envoy Taiko a title given to a retired Kampaku regent in Japan; a title commonly associated with Toyotomi Hideyoshi Official purpose1590SeonjoHwang Yun-gilRutt, Richard et al. (2003). Korea: a Historical and Cultural Dictionary, p. 190.Toyotomi Hideyoshi Congratulations on the unification of Hideyoshi1596SeonjoHwang SinPalais, James B. Confucian Statecraft and Korean Institutions: Yu Hyŏngwŏn and the late Chosŏn Dynasty, p. 83; n.b., this source equates the term "formal ambassador" with "tongsinsa", without reference to signifying "normalized" bilateral relations.Toyotomi Hideyoshi Negotiating end of hostilities, withdrawal of invading Japanese forces.Kang, Diplomacy and Ideology, p. 225.
1590 In the 23rd year of the reign of King Seonjo, a diplomatic mission led by Hwang Yun-gil was sent by the Joseon court to Japan. The Joseon ambassador was received by the Japanese leader, Toyotomi Hideyoshi.
1596 In the 29th year of King Seonjo's reign, a diplomatic mission headed by Hwang Sin accompanied the Ming ambassadors who traveled to Japan.
Joseon missions to the Tokugawa shogunate
After the Japanese invaders were repulsed, Korean-Japanese diplomatic relations had to be re-established and normalized; they ultimately took on a somewhat different form than prior to 1592.Kang, Woong Joe. (2005). The Korean struggle for International identity, p. 44. For starters, Japanese envoys/missions were restricted to the waegwan in Busan and prohibited from traveling to Hanseong (present-day Seoul) by the Joseon court (as the Japanese invasion forces in 1592 used the same land route in Korea as prior Japanese missions had)."Early Modern Period." Northeast Asian History Foundation, 2007 Further, the missions from Joseon were no longer greeted in Japan by military commanders but only diplomats. Lastly, the costs of the Korean missions were entirely paid for by the Japanese, which by some estimates equaled the Tokugawa shogunate's entire annual budget in the years that they were dispatched.
The Joseon court also did not resume using the term tongsinsa for missions to Japan until the 1636 mission, as the term was only used for missions under conditions of normalized relations.Lewis, James Bryant. (2003). Frontier contact between Chosŏn Korea and Tokugawa Japan, pp. 21–24.