The Beta Israel, or Ethiopian Jews, are a Jewish group originating in the Amhara and Tigray regions of northern Ethiopia, where they historically inhabited more than 500 small villages.Weil, Shalva. (2012) "Ethiopian Jews: the Heterogeneity of a Group", in Grisaru, Nimrod, and Witztum, Eliezer. Cultural, Social and Clinical Perspectives on Ethiopian Immigrants in Israel, Beersheba: Ben-Gurion University Press, pp. 1–17. The majority are concentrated in what is today North Gondar Zone, Shire Inda Selassie, Welkait, Tselemti, Dembia, Segelt, Qwara Province, and Belesa. Since their official recognition as Jewish under Israel's Law of Return, most of the Beta Israel have made aliyah from Ethiopia to Israel through several Israeli government initiatives starting in 1979.Weil, Shalva (1997) "Collective Designations and Collective Identity of Ethiopian Jews", in Shalva Weil (ed.) Ethiopian Jews in the Limelight, Jerusalem: NCJW Research Institute for Innovation in Education, Hebrew University, pp. 35–48. (Hebrew)
The history behind the ethnogenesis of the Beta Israel is a matter of dispute. They appear to have been lastingly isolated from broader Jewish communities, having historically practiced a divergent, non-Talmudic form of Judaism, known as Haymanot, that is similar in some respects to Karaite Judaism. Genetic studies show them to cluster closely with non-Jewish Amharas and Tigrayans, with no indications of maternal gene flow with Yemenite Jews in spite of their geographic proximity.
The community suffered extensive destruction in the 19th century due to the Mahdist War, as well as persecution by the Ethiopian Empire. In response to these pressures, and influenced by the efforts of Protestant and Messianic Jewish missionaries, a portion of the community converted to Christianity. These converts became known as the Falash Mura. The Beta Abraham community is considered by some to be a crypto-Judaic branch of the Beta Israel.jewishquarterly.org/article
The Beta Israel first made extensive contact with other Jewish communities in the early 20th century, after which a comprehensive rabbinic debate ensued over whether they are to be considered Jewish. Following halakhic and constitutional discussions, Israeli authorities decided in 1977 that the Beta Israel qualified on all fronts for the Israeli Law of Return. Thus, the Israeli government, with support from the United States, began a large-scale effort to conduct transport operations and bring the Beta Israel to Israel in multiple waves.Weil, Shalva. (2008) "Zionism among Ethiopian Jews", in Hagar Salamon (ed.) Jewish Communities in the 19th and 20th Centuries: Ethiopia, Jerusalem: Ben-Zvi Institute, pp. 187–200. (Hebrew)Weil, Shalva 2012 "Longing for Jerusalem Among the Beta Israel of Ethiopia", in Edith Bruder and Tudor Parfitt (eds.) African Zion: Studies in Black Judaism, Cambridge: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, pp. 204–217. These activities included Operation Brothers, which evacuated the Beta Israel community in Sudan between 1979 and 1990 (including Operation Moses in 1984 and Operation Joshua in 1985), and Operation Solomon in 1991.The Rescue of Ethiopian Jews 1978–1990 (Hebrew); "Ethiopian Immigrants and the Mossad Met " (Hebrew)Weil, Shalva. (2011) "Operation Solomon 20 Years On", International Relations and Security Network (ISN).http://www.isn.ethz.ch/isn/Current-Affairs/ISN-Insights/Detail?ord538=grp1&ots591=eb06339b-2726-928e-0216-1b3f15392dd8&lng=en&id=129480&contextid734=129480&contextid735=129244&tabid=129244 At the end of 2019, there were 155,300 Ethiopian Jews in Israel. Approximately 87,500 were born in Ethiopia, and 67,800 were born in Israel to Ethiopian-born parents. The community in Israel is mostly composed of Beta Israel (practicing both Haymanot and Rabbinic Judaism), but also includes smaller numbers of Falash Mura who left Christianity and began practicing Rabbinic Judaism following their immigration to the country.
Terminology The Beta Israel community, (literally, the 'house of Israel' in Ge'ez), has been known by several names throughout its history.
The local populace called them the Esraelawi (Israelites), Yehudi or Ayhud.Quirun, The Evolution of the Ethiopian Jews, pp. 11–15; Aešcoly, Book of the Falashas, pp. 1–3; Hagar Salamon, Beta Israel and their Christian neighbors in Ethiopia: Analysis of key concepts at different levels of cultural embodiment, Hebrew University, 1993, pp. 69–77 (Hebrew); Shalva Weil, "Collective Names and Collective Identity of Ethiopian Jews" in Ethiopian Jews in the Limelight, Hebrew University, 1997, pp. 35–48
However, the name Ayhud (lit. the "Jewish people") is rarely used by the Beta Israel community, because in the past, Ethiopian Christians used it as a derogatory term. The usage of the term increased during the 20th century as the Beta Israel strengthened its ties with other Jewish communities.
Within the community, the term Ibrawi (lit. "Hebrew") was used in reference to the chawa (lit. "free man," see Chewa regiments) in the community, in contrast to the barya (lit. "slave").Salamon, Beta Israel, p. 135, n. 20 (Hebrew)
The colloquial Ethiopian/Eritrean term Falasha or Felasha, which means "landless", "wanderers", or "exiles", was given to the community in the 15th century by the Emperor Yeshaq I; after they were conquered by the Ethiopian Empire, its use is now considered offensive, though initially it may have not been considered derogatory. The term appears in Jewish texts in the 15th century (Hebrew: פֶלַאשַה).
Other terms which have been less-frequently used in reference to the community include Tebiban ("possessor of secret knowledge").
Geography Prior to the large-scale emigration of the community to Israel, they were primarily located in the northwestern regions of Ethiopia, historically known as Abyssinia. The majority of the community lived in areas such as the Semien Mountains, Begemder, Tsegede, Wolqayt, Tselemti, Dembiya, and Segelt. Smaller groups also resided in the Shewa region, including Addis Ababa, and in parts of Eritrea, particularly Asmara. The settlements were situated along the tributaries of the Tekezé River and near Lake Tana, the source of the Blue Nile. This area included the Simien Mountains, which includes Ras Dashen, the highest peak in Ethiopia- reaching an elevation of 4,549 meters.Cana 1911, p. 84. While the high-altitude terrain above 3,000 meters provided strategic advantages for defense and served as natural fortifications, it was difficult for farming due to thin, rocky soil and steep slopes.Cana 1911, p. 83. The mountain air in these highlands, known locally as Dega, is regarded as conducive to good health, longevity, and physical vitality.Haim Rosen, "On the Work of a Government Anthropologist Among Ethiopian Immigrants", Edited by Shalva Weil, Ethiopian Jews in the Spotlight, Ministry of Education, pp. 67-69
The communal settlements were typically situated near streams, rivers, and mountainous areas, often at elevations of 2,000 to 3,000 meters above sea level, within a climate zone called Waina Dega (meaning "Vineland" in Amharic). This zone has a temperate climate with average temperatures ranging between 2.5 °C and 18 °C. The region receives significant rainfall, averaging around 1,550 millimeters annually, with two distinct rainy seasons. The area also benefits from fertile soil, making it suitable for agriculture, although the steep, rocky terrain at higher elevations, like those found in the Simien Mountains, can present challenges for farming.
Beta Israel communities typically avoided lowland areas (below 2,000 meters), known as Kolla, due to the risks posed by tropical diseases like Malaria, parasites, and dangerous wildlife and the threat posed by potentially hostile neighboring tribes. However, during waves of emigration to Israel, members of the community were forced to cross hazardous lowland regions, this journey entailed significant hardship, and thousands perished, particularly during prolonged periods of waiting in refugee camps located in the Sudanese desert and in Addis Ababa.Alkan ML, Shvarts S, Medical services for rural Ethiopean Jews in Addis Ababa, 1990-1991, Rural and Remote Health 7 (online), 2007: 829
History
Ancient history The earliest archaeological evidence indicating the presence of Jews in the region comes from two incense burners discovered at Adi Qereh site near the ancient capital Yeha of Dʿmt, inscribed in Sabaic and dated to approximately 800 BCE, several centuries before the destruction of the First temple in Jerusalem. These inscriptions refer to "Hebrews" living among the local population. According to the researchers, these hereditary findings are consistent with archaeological findings on the penetration of crops domesticated in the Near East indicating that 2,500 years ago people from the Near East migrated to the Ethiopian Highlands bringing foreign crops such as wheats, barley and lentils.
In 325 CE, Ezana of Axum proclaimed Christianity as the state religion, leading to the construction of monasteries and churches throughout the empire. An inscription from this period references an insurrection led by a rebel named Pinchas, whose insurgents revolted and retreated to the Simien Mountains.Stuart Munro-Hay, Aksum: An African Civilisation of Late Antiquity, Edinburgh University Press, 1991, , p. 188 It also details the surrender and the raising of taxes from Simien to Aksum.
The collapse of the Himyar Kingdom occurred following a pogrom led by Dhu Nuwas, which targeted the Aksumites and local Christian communities in Najran. In response, Kaleb of Axum launched a military campaign, with the support of the Byzantine Empire, Justin II. This intervention led to the death of Dhu Nuwas and the subsequent Aksumite annexation of Himyar. According to the account of the Greek traveler Cosmas Indicopleustes from Alexandria, a significant portion of Jews were either forcibly converted to Christianity or exiled to the barren mountain known as Semiani, which refers to the Simien Mountains. Aksumite inscriptions from the 6th century also record another outbreak of tensions between Jewish and Christian communities in Aksum.
In the 9th century, a traveler known as Eldad ha-Dani, often referred to as "The Danite," arrived in the city of Kairouan, in modern-day Tunisia. Eldad claimed to come from an independent Jewish kingdom located in the mountains, south of Kush (modern-day Ethiopia). Eldad brought Halachic books with him, today scholars find it almost completely resembles the Halacha of the Beta Israel. Eldad asserted that his community did not adhere to the Talmud, but instead preserved a form of Judaism only adhering to the Written Torah. Upon his arrival, Eldad's claims were met with skepticism by the Kairouan Jewish community.
In response, the Jewish leaders sent a letter to Tzemach Gaon the Geon of Sura, a prominent halachic authority of the time, seeking clarification regarding Eldad's identity and religious practices. Tzemach Gaon affirmed that Eldad was indeed Jewish and said he belonged to the Tribe of Dan who settled in South of Cush, 135 years before the destruction of the First Temple. Eldad's works would be one of the first works bringing knowledge to the diaspora about the customs of the Beta Israel, his testimonies was also accepted and cited by the many prominent Geonim. His writings also gave to the rise of the legend Prester John.