Language immersion, or simply immersion, is a technique used in bilingual language education in which two languages are used for instruction in a variety of topics, including maths, science, or social studies. The languages used for instruction are referred to as the L1 and the L2 for each student, with L1 being the student's native language and L2 being the second language to be acquired through immersion programs and techniques. There are different types of language immersion that depend on the age of the students, the classtime spent in L2, the subjects that are taught, and the level of participation by the speakers of L1.
Although programs differ by country and context, most language immersion programs have the overall goal of promoting bilingualism between the two different sets of language-speakers. In many cases, biculturalism is also a goal for speakers of the majority language (the language spoken by the majority of the surrounding population) and the minority language (the language that is not the majority language). Research has shown that such forms of bilingual education provide students with overall greater language comprehension and production of the L2 in a native-like manner, especially greater exposure to other cultures and the preservation of languages, particularly heritage languages.
Background Bilingual education has taken on a variety of different approaches outside the traditional sink-or-swim model of full submersion in an L2 without assistance in the L1. According to the Center for Applied Linguistics (CAL), in 1971, there were only three immersion programs within the United States. As of 2011, there were 448 language immersion schools in the US, with the three main immersion languages of instruction being Spanish (45%), French (22%), and Mandarin (13%).Center for Applied Linguistics. (2011). Directory of foreign language immersion programs in U.S. schools. Retrieved April 1, 2017, from http://webapp.cal.org/Immersion/.
The first French-language immersion program in Canada, with the target language being taught as an instructional language, started in Quebec in 1965.Zuidema, J. (2011). French-Speaking Protestants in Canada : Historical Essays. Leiden: Brill NV. Since the majority language in Quebec is French, English-speaking parents wanted to ensure that their children could achieve a high level of French as well as English in Quebec. Since then, French immersion has spread across the country and has led to the situation of French immersion becoming the most common form of language immersion in Canada so far. According to the survey by CAL in 2011, there are over 528 immersion schools in the US. Besides, language immersion programs have spread to Australia, Mainland China, Saudi Arabia, Japan and Hong Kong, which altogether offer more than 20 languages. The survey also showed that Spanish is the most common immersion language in language immersion programs in US. There are over 239 Spanish-language immersion programs in the US because of immigration from Spanish-speaking countries. The other two common immersion language programs in the US are French and Mandarin, which have 114 and 71 language immersion programs, respectively.Center for Applied Linguistics. (2011). Directory of foreign language immersion programs in US schools. from http://www.cal.org/resources/immersion/
Types of learners Types of language immersion can be characterized by the total time students spend in the program and also by the students' age.
Types that are characterized by learning time: Total immersion: In total immersion, the language of instruction is the students' L2, meaning that students spent 100% of the school day in their L2. Some students find it difficult to understand more abstract and complex concepts when they are taught only via their L2. Partial immersion: In partial immersion programs, classtime is shared between the students' L1 and L2. In most cases, it is an even split of time between the languages. Some students prefer this type of language immersion. Two-way immersion: This type, which is also called bilingual immersion, is a way to integrate both students of the minority language and students of the majority language into the same classroom with the goal of academic excellence and bilingual proficiency for both student groups. In this type of language immersion, the instructional languages can be two languages, but only one language is used at a time. Students learn languages by the interaction with their peers and teachers. This method of language immersion is popular in America.Nascimento, F. C. (2017). Benefits of Dual Language Immersion on the Academic Achievement of English Language Learners. International Journal of Literacies, 24(1), 1-15. Types that are characterized by age: Early immersion: Students start learning their second language at the age of 5 or 6. Middle immersion: Students start learning their second language at the age of around 9 or 10. Late immersion: Students start learning their second language after the age of 11.Cervantes-Soon, C. G. (2014). A Critical Look at Dual Language Immersion in the New Latin@ Diaspora. Bilingual Research Journal, 37(1), 64-82.
The stages of immersion can also be divided into: Early total immersion: education in L2 at 90-100%, usually beginning in kindergarten or on first grade. Early partial immersion: education in L2 at 50%, usually beginning in kindergarten or on first grade. Middle (or delayed) total immersion: education in L2 at 90%, usually beginning on fourth grade. Middle (or delayed) partial immersion: education in L2 at 50%, usually beginning on fourth grade. Late total immersion: education in L2 at 80%, usually beginning on sixth or seventh grade. Late partial immersion: education in L2 at 50%, usually beginning on sixth or seventh grade.Dicks, J. and Lee Kristmanson, P. (2008). French Immersion: When and Why? THE STATE OF FRENCH-SECOND-LANGUAGE EDUCATION IN CANADA 2008, p. 1.
Types of instruction In foreign language experience or exploratory (FLEX) programs, students are exposed to a different language(s) and culture(s) in the classroom. A small percentage of class time is spent sampling one or more languages and/or learning about language and so proficiency in the target language is not the primary goal. The goals of the program are to develop careful listening skills, cultural and linguistic awareness, and interest in foreign languages for future language study, as well as to learn basic words and phrases in one or more foreign languages.Andrade, C., & Ging, D. (1988). "Urban FLES models: Progress and promise." Cincinnati, OH and Columbus, OH: Cincinnati Public Schools and Columbus Public Schools. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 292 337) In foreign language in the elementary schools (FLES) programs, students focus on listening, reading, writing and speaking in the target language. In contrast to FLEX programs, proficiency in the target language is the primary goal, but a secondary goal is to expose students to the foreign language’s culture. In submersion programs, bilingual students generally receive all of their instruction in their L2. Such programs are often referred to sink-or-swim programs because there is little support for the students' L1.Cummins, J. (2009). Bilingual and Immersion Programs. The Handbook of Language Teaching. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell. In two-way immersion programs, also called dual- or bilingual immersion, the student population consists of speakers of two or more languages. Two-way immersion programs in the US promote L1 speakers of a language other than English to maintain that language as well as to teach English as a second language (ESL). In addition, such programs allow L1 speakers of English to be immersed in a “foreign language acquisition environment.” In early-exit programs, bilingual students transition from a bilingual program to a mainstream classroom at an early age (around 7 or 8). Such programs are supported by the belief that bilingual children will benefit the most from transitioning into a mainstream classroom as early as possible. In late-exit programs, bilingual students transition from a bilingual program to a mainstream classroom at a later age (around 10 or 11). Such programs are supported by the belief that bilingual children will do better academically from being supported in both languages.
Location People may also relocate temporarily to receive language immersion, which occurs when they move to a place (within their native country or abroad) where their native language is not the majority language of that community. For example, Canadian anglophones go to Quebec (see Explore and Katimavik), and Irish anglophones go to the Gaeltacht. Often, that involves a homestay with a family that speaks only the target language. Children whose parents emigrate to a new country also find themselves in an immersion environment with respect to their new language. Another method is to create a temporary environment in which the target language predominates, as in linguistic summer camps like the "English villages" in South Korea and parts of Europe.
Study abroad can also provide a strong immersion environment to increase language skills. However, many factors may affect immersion during study abroad, including the amount of foreign-language contact during the program. To impact competence in the target language positively, Celeste Kinginger notes, research about language learning during study abroad suggests "a need for language learners' broader engagement in local communicative practices, for mindfulness of their situation as peripheral participants, and for more nuanced awareness of language itself.”
Implementation The task of organizing and creating such a program can be daunting and problematic, with everything from planning to district budget posing issues. One method of implementation proposed by the Center for Advanced Research on Language Acquisition is a phase-in method, which starts with the lowest year participating in the program as the only year and adds a new grade of students into the program each year, working up towards high school. This slow incorporation of an immersion program is useful for schools with limited funding and those who are skeptical about the benefits of such a program because it allows for yearly evaluation and, if it were to fail from the beginning, the impact of the loss is less significant.
The method of implementation is crucial to the success of the program, as the RAND Institute has concluded that the final result of these programs is positive, but only so long as implemented correctly, meaning consistency and strict adherence to the curriculum in the classroom.
Stages of language acquisition Pre-production: also called "the silent period," this period lasts 10 hours to 6 months in language immersion environment. Students may have about 500 receptive words in their mind but cannot speak the language yet. During this mimicking period, students are likely to repeat everything that they heard in class and can respond to pictures and yes-or-no questions by using their gestures like nodding or shaking their head. The class must integrate pictures and physical response methods. Early Production, in which students can master about 1000 receptive and active words, lasts six months after the pre-production stage. Students can answer simple questions, like yes-or-no questions. They also can repeat and use two-word phrases. They might not use patterns correctly, but they can discover the problem. This is a self-discovery period.Housen, A., & Pierrard, M. (2005). Investigations in Instructed Second Language Acquisition. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton.