Arminianism is a theological tradition within Protestantism that emerged in the early 17th century and is based on the ideas of the Dutch Reformed theologian Jacobus Arminius and his followers, known as the Remonstrants. Dutch Arminianism was one of the first structured responses to Calvinism doctrines, particularly their interpretation of predestination.
Central to Arminian theology is the belief that God extends prevenient grace to all people, thereby preparing them for regeneration. It also teaches that the grace that enables regeneration and ongoing sanctification can be resisted. The two main variants of Arminian thought are Classical Arminianism, principally associated with Arminius, and Wesleyan Arminianism, principally associated with John Wesley.
Many Protestant denominations have been influenced by Arminian views, notably the Baptists in the 17th century, the Methodists in the 18th century, and the Pentecostals in the 20th century.
History
Precursor movements and theological influences
Arminius's beliefs later referred to as Arminianism did not begin with him. Before the Reformation, groups like the Waldensians similarly affirmed individual freedom over any predetermined predestination. Anabaptist theologian Balthasar Hubmaier (1480–1528) also promoted much the same view as Arminius would, nearly a century later. The soteriological doctrines of Arminianism and Anabaptism are roughly equivalent. In particular, Mennonites have been historically Arminian whether they distinctly espoused the Arminian viewpoint or not, and rejected Calvinist soteriology.: "Mennonites have been historically Arminian in their theology whether they distinctly espoused the Arminian viewpoint or not. They never accepted Calvinism either in the Swiss-South German branch or in the Dutch-North German wing. Nor did any Mennonite confession of faith in any country teach any of the five points of Calvinism. However, in the 20th century, particularly in North America, some Mennonites, having come under the influence of certain Bible institutes and the literature produced by this movement and its schools, have adopted the Calvinist doctrine of the perseverance of the saints or "once in grace always in grace." In doing so, they have departed from the historic Arminianism of the Anabaptist-Mennonite movement." Anabaptist theology seems to have influenced Jacobus Arminius. At least, he was "sympathetic to the Anabaptist point of view, and Anabaptists were commonly in attendance on his preaching." Similarly, Arminius mentions Danish Lutheran theologian Niels Hemmingsen (1513–1600) as holding the basic view of soteriology he held, and he may have been influenced by Hemmingsen.: "I am using 'Arminianism' as a handy [...] synonym for 'evangelical synergism' (a term I borrow from Donald Bloesch). [...] It's simply a Protestant perspective on salvation, God's role and ours, that is similar to, if not identical with, what was assumed by the Greek church fathers and taught by Hubmaier, Menno Simons, and even Philipp Melanchthon (after Luther died). It was also taught by Danish Lutheran theologian Niels Hemmingsen (d. 1600)—independently of Arminius. (Arminius mentions Hemmingsen as holding the basic view of soteriology he held and he may have been influenced by Hemmingsen.)" Another key figure, Sebastian Castellio (1515–1563), who opposed Calvin's views on predestination and religious intolerance, is known to have influenced both the Mennonites and certain theologians within Arminius's circle. Early critics of Arminians even cited Castellio as a primary inspiration behind the Arminian movement.
Dutch Arminianism
Jacobus Arminius (1560–1609) was a Dutch pastor and theologian. He was taught by Theodore Beza, Calvin's hand-picked successor, but after examination of the scriptures, he rejected his teacher's theology that it is God who unconditionally elects some for salvation. Instead Arminius proposed that the election of God was "of believers", thereby making it conditional on faith. Arminius's views were challenged by the Dutch Calvinists, especially Franciscus Gomarus.
In his Declaration of Sentiments (1608) Arminius presented his theology to magistrates of the States General of the Netherlands in The Hague. After his death, Arminius's followers continued to advance his theological vision, crafting the Five articles of Remonstrance (1610), in which they express their points of divergence from the stricter Calvinism of the Belgic Confession. This is how Arminius's followers were called Remonstrants, and following a Counter Remonstrance in 1611, Gomarus' followers were called Counter-Remonstrants.
After some political maneuvering, the Dutch Calvinists were able to convince Prince Maurice of Nassau to deal with the situation. Maurice systematically removed Arminian magistrates from office and called a national synod at Dordrecht. This Synod of Dort was open primarily to Dutch Calvinists (102 people), while the Arminians were excluded (13 people banned from voting), with Calvinist representatives from other countries (28 people), and in 1618 published a condemnation of Arminius and his followers as heretics. The Canons of Dort responded, among other topics, to Arminian doctrines, anticipating their later articulation as the Five Points of Calvinism.
Arminians across Holland were removed from office, imprisoned, banished, and sworn to silence. Twelve years later, Holland officially granted Arminianism protection as a religion, although animosity between Arminians and Calvinists continued. Most of the early Remonstrants followed a classical version of Arminianism. However, some of them such as Philipp van Limborch, moved in the direction of semi-Pelagianism and rationalism.
Arminianism in the Church of England
In England, the so-labelled Arminian doctrines were held, in substance, before and in parallel with those of Arminius. The Thirty-nine Articles of Religion (finalised in 1571), were sufficiently ambiguous that they were compatible with either Arminian or Calvinistic interpretations. Arminianism in the Church of England was fundamentally an expression of negation of Calvinism, and only some theologians held to classical Arminianism, while the rest were either semi-Pelagian or Pelagian.: "Of the various terms which can be used to describe the thrust of religions change at the time Arminian is the least misleading. It does not mean that the Dutch theologian Jacobus Arminius was normally the source of the ideas so labelled. Rather Arminian denotes a coherent body of anti-Calvinist religious thought, which was gaining ground in various regions of early seventeenth-century Europe." In this specific context, contemporary historians prefer to use the term "proto-Arminians" rather than "Arminians" to designate the leanings of those divines who generally did not follow classical Arminianism.: "If we use the label 'Arminian' for English Churchmen, it must be with these important qualification in mind [of been related to the theology of Arminius]; 'proto-Arminian' would be a more accurate term." English Arminianism was represented by Arminian Puritans such as John Goodwin or High Anglican Arminians such as Jeremy Taylor and Henry Hammond. Anglican Arminians of the 17th century such as William Laud fought Calvinist Puritans. They saw Arminianism in terms of a state church, an idea that was alien to the views of Arminius. In many cases, "Arminianism" was a label applied by their enemies. This position became particularly evident under the reign (1625–1649) of Charles I. Following the Interregnum (1649–1660), King Charles II, who tolerated the Presbyterians, re-instituted Arminian thought in the Church of England. It was dominant there after the Restoration (1660): "According to Edwards, it was only after the Restoration that non-Calvinist views come to be adopted by many of the clergy of the Church of England. Foremost among those who rejected Calvinism had been the Arminians, and Edwards appeared on the scene as a defender of Calvinism against Arminianism at a time when it was more often the Dissenters who were battling it and calling attention to the triumph of Arminianism in the Church of England." for some fifty years.
Baptists The Baptist tradition emerged in the early 17th century in England. The first Baptists, led by the theologian Thomas Helwys, were later called "General Baptists" because of their doctrine of general atonement, an Arminian doctrine. Later General Baptists, such as John Griffith, Samuel Loveday, and Thomas Grantham, defended a soteriology similar to Classical Arminianism that reflected the original teaching of Arminius. The General Baptists encapsulated their views in numerous confessions, the most influential of which was the Standard Confession. In the 1640s the Particular Baptists were formed, diverging from any Arminian doctrine and embracing the strong Calvinism of the Presbyterians and Independents. Their robust Calvinism was publicized in such confessions as the First London Confession of Faith of 1644 and the Second London Confession of 1689. The Second London Confession was used by Calvinistic Baptists in America, and later revised in 1742, forming the Philadelphia Confession of Faith, whereas the Standard Confession of 1660 was used by the General Baptists and their American heirs known as Free Will Baptists.
Methodists
In the Methodist–Calvinist controversy of the early 1770s involving Anglican ministers John Wesley and George Whitefield, Wesley responded to accusations of semi-Pelagianism by embracing an Arminian identity. Wesley had limited familiarity with the beliefs of Arminius and largely formulated his views without direct reliance on Arminius's teachings. Wesley was notably influenced by 17th-century English Arminianism and by some Remonstrant spokesmen.: "What Wesley knew of Arminius came to him through two basic sources. First, he knew something of Arminius through Remonstrant spokesmen. [...] Wesley's second source of Arminian theology was the English Church in general, particularly the writers of the seventeenth century. This was by far his predominant source [...]." However, he is recognized as a faithful representative of Arminius's beliefs. Wesley defended his soteriology through the publication of a periodical titled The Arminian (1778) and in articles such as Predestination Calmly Considered. To support his stance, he strongly maintained belief in total depravity while clarifying other doctrines, notably prevenient grace. At the same time, Wesley attacked the determinism that he claimed characterized Calvinist doctrines of predestination. He typically preached the notion of Christian perfection (fully mature, not "sinlessness"). His system of thought has become known as Wesleyan Arminianism, the foundations of which were laid by him and his fellow preacher John William Fletcher. Methodism also navigated its own theological intricacies concerning salvation and human agency. In the 1830s, during the Second Great Awakening, traces of Pelagian influence surfaced in the American Holiness Movement. Consequently, critics of Wesleyan theology have occasionally unfairly perceived or labeled its broader thought.: "The American Holiness movement, influenced heavily by the revivalism of Charles Finney, inculcated some of his Soft Semi-Pelagian tendencies among their preachers and teachers [...]. This has provided critics of Wesleyan theology with fodder by which they pigeonhole inaccurately larger Wesleyan thought." However, its core is recognized to be Arminianism.
Pentecostals