Zuni ( ; ) is a language of the Zuni people, indigenous to western New Mexico and eastern Arizona in the southwestern United States. It is spoken by around 9,500 people, especially in the vicinity of Zuni Pueblo, New Mexico, and, much less commonly, in parts of Arizona.
Edmund Ladd reported in 1994 that Zuni is still the main language of communication in the pueblo and is used in the home (Newman 1996). However, in 2018, the Pueblo of Zuni Head Start Program reported that most parents were unable to speak Zuni fluently and mostly spoke English, and that only 16 percent of the Zuni children spoke Zuni.From "Pueblo of Zuni Head Start Program FY 2018 Annual Report" available on the Zuni Pueblo web site:
Through the years, the Zuni Head Start Program has seen a decline of the native language spoken by children and their parents The parents of our children are young and speak mostly the English language. The lack of the native language spoken in the home is the primary reason our children do not speak their native language. Most parents are able to understand the native language but unable to speak the language fluently.
Families who live with elders such as grandparents, aunts or uncles speak more of their native language and are fluent speakers. The percentage of children speaking their native language has declined over the last 29 years; therefore the Zuni Head Start Program has taken an active stance to incorporate the daily use of the Zuni language in the classrooms, which include the teaching of the Zuni culture. There is a lot of encouragement for everyone in the center to speak the Zuni language in social conversations so that our children will hear the language and become to be [sic] comfortable to speak [sic] their language.
Language use of the children enrolled in Head Start:
137 Children spoke English as their primary language, 15 Children spoke Zuni as their primary language. This indicates only 16 percent of the Zuni children are able to understand and speak their native language.
The Zuni name for their own language, (shiwi "Zuni" + -ʼma "vernacular"; pronounced ) can be translated as "Zuni way", whereas its speakers are collectively known as ʼA꞉shiwi (ʼa꞉(w)- "plural" + shiwi "Zuni").
Classification Zuni is considered a language isolate. The Zuni have, however, borrowed a number of words from Keres, Hopi, and O’odham pertaining to religion and religious observances.Hill, Jane H. "Zunian as a Language Isolate." American Southwest Vol. 22, No. 2, Spring 2008, p. 3
A number of possible relationships of Zuni to other languages have been proposed by various researchers, although none of these have gained general acceptance. The main hypothetical proposals have been connections with Penutian (and Penutioid and Macro-Penutian), Tanoan, Hokan phyla, and the Keresan languages.
The most clearly articulated hypothesis is Newman's (1964) connection to Penutian, but even this was considered by Newman (according to Michael Silverstein) to be a tongue-in-cheek work due to the inherently problematic nature of the methodology used in Penutian studies (Goddard 1996). Newman's cognate sets suffered from common problems in comparative linguistics, such as comparing commonly borrowed forms (e.g., words for "tobacco"), forms with large semantic differences (e.g., "bad" and "garbage", "horse" and "hoof"), nursery forms, and onomatopoetic forms (Campbell 1997). Zuni was also included under Morris Swadesh's Penutioid proposal and Joseph Greenberg's very inclusive Penutian sub-grouping – both without convincing arguments (Campbell 1997).
Zuni was included in the Aztec-Tanoan language family in Edward Sapir's heuristic 1929 classification (without supporting evidence). Later discussions of the Aztec-Tanoan hypothesis usually excluded Zuni (Foster 1996).
Karl-Heinz Gursky published problematic unconvincing evidence for a Keresan-Zuni grouping. J. P. Harrington wrote one unpublished paper with the title "Zuñi Discovered to be Hokan" (Campbell 1997).
Language contact
As Zuni is a language in the Pueblo linguistic area, it shares a number of features with Hopi, Keresan, and Tanoan (and to a lesser extent Navajo) that are probably due to language contact. The development of ejective consonants in Zuni may be due to contact with Keresan and Tanoan languages which have complete series of ejectives. Likewise, aspirated consonants may have diffused into Zuni. Other shared traits include: final devoicing of vowels and sonorant consonants, dual number, ceremonial vocabulary, and the presence of a labialized velar (Campbell 1997).
Phonology
The 16 consonants of Zuni (with IPA phonetic symbol when different from the orthography) are the following:
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center" |- ! rowspan="2" | ! rowspan="2" | Bilabial ! colspan="2" | Dental/Alveolar ! rowspan="2" | Post-alveolar ! rowspan="2" | Palatal ! colspan="2" | Velar ! rowspan="2" | Glottal |-class=small ! ! median ! lateral ! plain ! labial |- ! | Nasal
! Plosive
! Affricate
! Fricative
! Approximant
The vowels are the following:
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center" ! ! Front ! back |- ! High
! Mid
! Low | colspan="2" |
Zuni syllables have the following specification:
C(C)V(ː)(C)(C)
Morphology Word order in Zuni is fairly free with a tendency toward SOV. There is no case-marking on nouns. Verbs are complex, compared to nouns, with loose incorporation. Like other languages in the Southwest, Zuni employs switch-reference.
Newman (1965, 1996) classifies Zuni words according to their structural morphological properties (namely the presence and type of inflectional suffixes), not according to their associated syntactic frames. His terms noun and substantive are therefore not synonymous.
Pronouns Zuni uses overt pronouns for first and second persons. There are no third person pronouns. The pronouns distinguish three numbers (singular, dual, and plural) and three cases (subject, object, and possessive). In addition, some subject and possessive pronouns have different forms depending on whether they appear utterance-medially or utterance-finally (object pronouns do not occur utterance-medially). All pronoun forms are shown in the following table:
SubjectObjectPossessive Medial Final Medial Final 1st person singular hoʼ ho꞉ʼo hom hom homma dual hon hoʼno hoʼnaʼ hoʼnaʼ hoʼnaʼ plural hon hoʼno hoʼnaʼ hoʼnʼa꞉wan hoʼnʼa꞉wan 2nd person singular doʼ do꞉ʼo dom dom domma dual don doʼno doʼnaʼ doʼnaʼ doʼnaʼ plural don doʼno doʼnaʼ doʼnʼa꞉wan doʼnʼa꞉wan
There is syncretism between dual and plural non-possessive forms in the first and second persons. Utterances with these pronouns are typically disambiguated by the fact that plural pronouns agree with plural-marked verb forms.
Sociolinguistics
storytelling (Delapna꞉we) – Tedlock (1972) ceremonial speech – Newman (1955) slang – Newman (1955)
Names Zuni adults are often known after the relationship between that adult and a child. For example, a person might be called "father of so-and-so", etc. The circumlocution is used to avoid using adult names, which have religious meanings and are very personal.Kroeber, Albert L. (1917). "Zuñi kin and clan". Anthropological papers of the American Museum of Natural History (Vol. 18, Pt. 2). New York: The Trustees.
Orthography There are twenty letters in the Zuni alphabet. UppercaseA B CH D E H I K L Ł M N O P S TU W Y ’ Lowercasea b ch d e h i k l ł m n o p s tu w y ’
Double consonants indicate geminate (long) sounds. For instance, the in "car" represents . Long vowels are indicated with a colon following the vowel, as is the in "animals". is not part of the alphabet, although the digraph is. There are also other two-letter combination sounds (like ). are not used to write Zuni, except for the occasional borrowed word. indicates IPA (a voiceless alveolar lateral fricative, pronounced roughly like h and l together). indicates IPA (a glottal stop) – it is written medially and finally but not word-initially.
This orthography was largely worked out by Curtis Cook.
Old orthographies Linguists and anthropologists created and used their own writing systems for Zuni before the alphabet was standardized. The practical orthography developed by linguist Stanley Newman (Newman 1954) essentially followed Americanist phonetic notation with the substitution of some uncommon letters with other letters or digraphs. A further revised orthography is used in Dennis Tedlock's transcriptions of oral narratives.
See the table below for a comparison of the systems.
{| class="wikitable" ! Tedlock || Newman || Americanist || Current orthography || IPA |- | ʼ || / || ʔ || ʼ || |- | ʼʼ || // || ʔʔ || ʼʼ || |- | a || a || a || a || |- | aa || a꞉ || aˑ || a꞉ || |- | ch || ch || č || ch || |- | cch || chch || čč || chh || |- | e || e || e || e || |- | ee || e꞉ || eˑ || e꞉ || |- | i || i || i || i || |- | ii || i꞉ || iˑ || i꞉ || |- | h || j || h || h || |- | hh || jj || hh || hh || |- | k || k || k || k || |- | kk || kk || kk || kk || |- | kw || q || kʷ || kw || |- | kkw || qq || kʷkʷ || kkw || |- | l || l || l || l || |- | ll || ll || ll || ll || |- | lh || lh || ł || ł || |- | llh || lhlh || łł || łł || |- | m || m || m || m ||
Tedlock Newman Americanist Current orthography IPA mm mm mm mm n n n n nn nn nn nn o o o o oo o꞉ oˑ o꞉ p p p p pp pp pp pp s s s s ss ss ss ss sh sh š sh ssh shsh šš shh t t t t tt tt tt tt ts z c ts tts zz cc tts u u u u uu u꞉ uˑ u꞉ w w w w ww ww ww ww y y y y yy yy yy yy
In Newman's orthography (used in his dictionary, Newman 1958), the symbols, replaced Americanist (used in Newman's grammar, Newman 1965).
Tedlock's orthography uses instead of Newman's except at the beginning of words, where it is not written. Additionally, in Tedlock's system, long vowels are written doubled instead of with a length mark as in Newman's system (e.g. instead of ) and and are used instead of and . Finally, Tedlock writes the following long consonants – – with a doubled initial letter instead of Newman's doubling of the digraphs – , , – and and are used instead of Newman's and .
Notes
References
Bunzel, Ruth L. (1932a). Zuñi origin myths. In 47th annual report of the Bureau of American Ethnology for the years 1929–1930 (pp. 545–609). Washington. Bunzel, Ruth L. (1932b). Zuñi ritual poetry. In 47th annual report of the Bureau of American Ethnology for the years 1929–1930 (pp. 611–835). Washington. Bunzel, Ruth L. (1933). Zuni texts. Publications of the American Ethnological Society (No. 15). New York: G.E. Steckert & Co. Bunzel, Ruth L. (1934). Zuni. In Handbook of American Indian languages (Vol. 3, pp. 383–515). Gluckstadt: J. J. Augustin. Campbell, Lyle. (1997). American Indian languages: The historical linguistics of Native America. New York: Oxford University Press. . Cannell, Joseph R. (2007). On the Language Family Classifications of Zuni [Online] Available: www.josephcannell.yahoo.com [2007, April 15] Condie, Carol. (1973). Problems of a Chomskyan analysis of Zuni transitivity. International Journal of American Linguistics, 39, 207-223. Cook, Curtis D. (1975). Nucleus and margin of Zuni clause types. Linguistics, 13 5-37. Cushing, Frank Hamilton. (1975). Zuni breadstuff. Indian notes and monographs (Vol. 8). AMS Press. Davis, Nancy Yaw. (2000). The Zuni enigma. Norton. Davis, Irvine. (1966). [Review of Zuni grammar by Stanley Newman]. International Journal of American Linguistics, 32, 82-84. Dutton, Bertha P. (1983). American Indians of the Southwest. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. Foster, Michael K. (1996). Language and the culture history of North America. In I. Goddard (Ed.) Handbook of North American Indians: Languages (Vol. 17, pp. 64–110). Washington: Smithsonian Institution.