Sprinting is running as fast as possible over a relatively short distance and period of time. It involves the whole body working as one in order to produce maximum forward thrust through a series of sprinting strides which are taken as quickly as possible. It is used in many sports that incorporate running, typically as a way of rapidly reaching a target or goal, avoiding or catching an opponent, or intercepting a ball.
In athletics and track and field, sprints (or dashes) are races over short distances. They are among the oldest running competitions, being recorded at the Ancient Olympic Games. Three sprints are currently held at the modern Summer Olympics and outdoor World Championships: the 100 metres, 200 metres, and 400 metres.
At the professional level, sprinters begin the race by assuming a crouching position in the starting blocks before driving forward and gradually moving into an upright position as the race progresses and momentum is gained. The set position differs depending on the start. The use of starting blocks allows the sprinter to perform an enhanced isometric preload; this generates muscular pre-tension which is channeled into the subsequent forward drive, making it more powerful. Body alignment is of key importance in producing the optimal amount of force. Ideally, the athlete should begin in a 4-point stance and drive forwards concurrently pushing off using both legs for maximum force production.100 m – For the Expert. IAAF. Retrieved on 26 March 2010. This initial forward thrust is asymmetric in nature usually meaning that the rear foot is lifted sooner while the front foot continues to push off from the front plate. As they come up from their low stance and their posture becomes increasingly upright they continue to thrust forwards in the direction of travel.
Athletes remain in the same lane on the running track throughout all sprinting events,400 m Introduction. IAAF. Retrieved on 26 March 2010. with the sole exception of the 400 metres indoors. Races up to 100 metres are largely focused upon acceleration to an athlete's maximum speed. All sprints beyond this distance incorporate an element of endurance.200 m For the Expert. IAAF. Retrieved on 26 March 2010.
History
The Ancient Olympic Games were begun in 776 BC. The first 13 editions featured only one event—the stadion race, which was a sprinting race from one end of the stadium to the other.Instone, Stephen (15 November 2009). The Olympics: Ancient versus Modern. BBC. Retrieved on 23 March 2010. The Diaulos (Δίαυλος, "double pipe") was a double-stadion race, , introduced in the 14th Olympiad of the ancient Olympic Games (724BC).
Sprinting, and sprint training, in Ancient Greece emphasised the need to be as light-footed as possible while also ensuring that the foot was placed stably. The contemporary Hellenised, Syrian writer Lucian, in his treatise Anachasis, or Athletics, states that:
Training in heavy sand helped the sprinters to develop their technique. As the sand could move awkwardly when they placed their feet it meant that they were in danger of losing their sense of balance. Therefore they had to place their feet more lightly and carefully in order to avoid this happening. With continued practice this developed their ability to be as light-footed and as sure-footed as possible. Jump training, with and without weights, were methods used to develop the light-footedness and explosive power of sprinters and other athletes.
In the middle-ages sprint races were referred to as foot-races. They were a popular pastime and considered to be a worthy pursuit especially for males raised in military professions. Writing in 1801, the sports writer Joseph Strutt stated 'There is no other exercise that has more uniformly met the approbation of authors than running. In the middle-ages, foot-racing was considered as an essential part of a young man's education, especially if he was the son of a man of rank, and brought up in a military profession.'
In America in 1691, Sir Francis Nicholson hosted a Virginia athletic games which involved foot-races among its events. These races were partly based on a practice from Britain where aristocrats would race their footmen against each other for entertainment. As betting became more a part of the races, professional runners began to increasingly emerge.
Writing in 1838, the Hawaiian intellectual, David Malo, described foot-races which were part of traditional Hawaiian culture. The participants were called Kukini, meaning swift-runners, and they trained with task-specific physical training exercises and ate a specialised diet. Malo states 'The runner was first exercised in walking on his toes, without touching the heel of the foot to the ground. Then he was set to running, at first for a short distance at a moderate pace. Finally he was made to run at full speed for great distances. While in training they were denied poi and all soggy, heavy food, but were fed on rare-done flesh of the fowl and roasted vegetables, taro, sweet-potato, bread-fruit, etc.' The sprinters had to race from a starting point to a flag on a pole. Bets were placed on the runners by the spectators. These runners were also employed as messengers for civil and military matters.
The first modern Olympic Games started in the late 19th century (Athens 1896) and featured the 100 metres and 400 metres. Athletes started both races from a crouched start (4-point stance). In both the original Olympics and the modern Olympics, only men were allowed to participate in track and field until the 1928 games in Amsterdam, Netherlands. The 1928 games were also the first games to use a 400-metre track, which became the standard for track and field.
The modern sprinting events have their roots in races of imperial measurements which were later altered to metric: the 100 m evolved from the 100-yard dash,100 m – Introduction. IAAF. Retrieved on 26 March 2010. the 200 m distance came from the furlong (or mile),200 m Introduction. IAAF. Retrieved on 26 March 2010. and the 400 m was the successor to the 440-yard dash or quarter-mile race.
Technological advances have always improved sprint performances (i.e., starting blocks, synthetic track material, and shoe technology). In 1924, athletes used a small shovel to dig holes to start the race. The world record in the 100-metre dash in 1924 was 10.4 seconds, while in 1948, (the first use of starting blocks) was 10.2 seconds, and was 10.1 seconds in 1956. The constant drive for faster athletes with better technology has brought man from 10.4 seconds to 9.58 seconds in less than 100 years.
Track events were measured with the metric system except for the United Kingdom and the United States until 1965 and 1974 respectively. The Amateur Athletic Association (AAU) decided to switch track and field in the U.S. to the metric system to finally make track and field internationally equivalent.
Biological factors for runners Biological factors that determine a sprinter's potential include:
Height (minor factor) Muscular strength Adrenaline use Anaerobic respiration capacity Breathing Footspeed Proportion of fast twitch musclesQuinn, Elizabeth (2007-10-30). Fast and Slow Twitch Muscle Fibers About.com. Retrieved on 2009-02-01. Leg length Pelvic width
Competitions
Common contemporary distances
60 metres
Normally run indoors, on a straight section of an indoor athletic track. Some of the fastest humans reach their maximum speed around the 60-metre mark. 60-metres is often used as an outdoor distance by younger athletes when starting sprint racing.
Note: Indoor distances are less standardized, as many facilities run shorter or occasionally longer distances depending on available space. 60 m is the championship distance.
100 metres Source: Takes place on the straight of a standard outdoor 400 m track. Often, the world-record holder in this race is considered "the world's fastest man or woman." Primarily an outdoor race.
200 metres Source: Begins on the curve of a standard track (where the runners are staggered in their starting position, to ensure that they all run the same distance), and ends on the home straight. Competed both indoors and outdoors, with only slightly slower times than outdoors.
400 metres Source: Runners are staggered in their starting positions to ensure that everyone runs the same distance. Competed both indoors and outdoors, with only slightly slower times than outdoors.
4 × 100 metres relay Source: Runners are staggered in their starting positions to ensure that everyone runs the same distance. Runners use exchange zones (and, previously, separate acceleration zones which have now been eliminated) to pass a baton
4 × 400 metres relay Source: Runners are staggered in their starting positions to ensure that everyone runs the same distance. Runners use exchange zones to pass a baton. Typically, the final race at track meets.
Historical and uncommon distances
50 yards (45.72 m) The event was a common event for most American students because it was one of the standardized test events as part of the President's Award on Physical Fitness.
50 m The 50 metres is an uncommon event and alternative to the 60 metres. Donovan Bailey holds the men's world record with a time of 5.56 seconds and Irina Privalova holds the women's world record with a time of 5.96 seconds.
60 yards (54.864 m)
A rarely run sprinting event that was once more commonplace. The world record time of 5.99 seconds is held by Lee McRae and was set in 1987. The time is often used for American football speed training.
55 m The 55 metres is an uncommon event that resulted from the metrication of the 60 yards and is an alternative to the 60 metres.
70 yards (64.008 m) An extremely rare sprinting event, that was occasionally run in the 1960s. The world record of 6.90 seconds is held by Bob Hayes.
100 yards (91.44 m) The outdoor standard in the English (imperial measured) speaking world. It was part of the Commonwealth Games up until 1966 and was the premier event in American high school sprinting until the NFHS changed to metric in 1980, now only a secondary distance to the 100 metres. The unofficial World Record Holder is Jamaican Asafa Powell with a time of 9.07 seconds.
150 m
The informal distance of 150 metres (164.042 yards) can be used to work on a 100 m runner's stamina, or a 200 m runner's speed, and has been used as an exhibition distance. The distance was used in a race between the 1996 Olympic champions, the 100 m gold medalist Donovan Bailey (Canada) and the 200 m gold medalist Michael Johnson (USA). It was to decide which of the two was really the 'fastest man on earth' (see Bailey–Johnson 150-metre race). The informal distance was used for an exhibition race during the Manchester Great CityGames as part of the 2009 Great Manchester Run (UK). Stars included Triple Olympic Champion Usain Bolt (Jamaica) alongside Ivory Williams (USA), Simeon Williamson (UK), and other international track stars. The female race included 400 m Olympic Champion, Christine Ohuruogu of Great Britain alongside Debbie Ferguson-McKenzie (Bahamas). Bolt ran the distance in a record time of 14.35 seconds.Bolt runs 14.35 sec for 150m; covers 50m-150m in 8.70 sec!. IAAF (2009-05-17). Retrieved on 2009-05-17.
Stadion
The stadion, also known as the stade, was the standard short distance sprint in ancient Greece and ran the length of a stadium. However, stadiums could vary in size and there was apparently no definite standard length for them, e.g., the stadium at Delphi measures 177 m and the one at Pergamon 210 m.Spivey, Nigel, The Ancient Olympics, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004, p. 111–112
300 m