Afro-Caribbean music is a broad term for music styles originating in the Caribbean from the African diaspora. These types of music usually have West African/Central African influence because of the presence and history of African people and their descendants living in the Caribbean, as a result of the trans-Atlantic slave trade. These distinctive musical art forms came about from the cultural mingling of African, Indigenous, and European inhabitants. Characteristically, Afro-Caribbean music incorporates components, instruments and influences from a variety of African cultures, as well as Indigenous and European cultures.
Afro-Caribbean music has been influenced by historical and stylistic influences. Historically, Afro-Caribbean music was influenced by the transatlantic slave trade and later, by the resistance and emancipation of slaves. Stylistically, afro-Caribbean music has been influenced by various African, European and Indigenous Latin American influences. African influences are reflected by many of the Rhythms, vocal characteristics and instruments that are used in afro-Caribbean music. Afro-Caribbean music shares many commonalities with traditional European style music, using many European instruments, harmonies and melodies in music of the genre. Indigenous Latin American influence can be seen through the use of percussive instruments and certain vocal techniques. Afro-Caribbean music has many common musical characteristics, including the use of Polyrhythms, call-and-response invocations and a variety of instruments. Instruments commonly used in afro-Caribbean music include drums, other percussion instruments, and guitars.
Although the roots of afro-Caribbean music go back to the 15th century, the official local industry only began in the 1920s. Following this, afro-Caribbean music gained global popularity throughout the 20th century. As afro-Caribbean music gained popularity, many sub-genres began to emerge. These sub-genres include: son cubano, salsa, calypso, soca, mento, ska, reggae and merengue.
Development of the industry
Local Caribbean
Afro-Caribbean music began in the Caribbean as a result of the transatlantic slave trade and the creation of a neo-African culture among slaves. Afro-Caribbean music dates back as far as the 15th century, when the slave trade began. Although afro-Caribbean music existed for centuries, local recording and distribution officially began in the 1920s. Some of the earlier afro-Caribbean sub-genres to emerge included calypso, merengue, son, reggae and salsa. Due to multiple problems with production and distribution, music from the region struggled initially to gain global popularity.
Global popularity Afro-Caribbean music rose to popularity during the 20th century, exerting influence over many subsequent genres including jazz and hip-hop. Many of these sub-genres have been validated in recent years due to a newfound appreciation of afro-Caribbean culture and tradition. In the United States, the genre has gained popularity due to the mass media infrastructure, large immigrant population and receptive non-Caribbean audiences. Due to these factors, New York City, although not in the Caribbean, is considered another centre of afro-Caribbean music. Sub-genres that gained popularity in the United States include the rumba, salsa and reggae. These genres were particularly popular among youth during the 1970s in countries such as the United States and the United Kingdom.
Influences of afro-Caribbean music
Historical influences
Role of the transatlantic slave trade
The origin of afro-Caribbean music traces back to the 15th century and the arrival of African people in the Caribbean via the transatlantic slave trade. During the slave era, rivalling African villages attained captives who were sold into the slave trade. The collaboration of African states with European slave traders stimulated the slave trade, eliminating the need for kidnapping or effort by the European slavers. There were many different African cultures and traditions present among the Caribbean slave population. Music, tradition and religion were important to African people. As a result, neo-African cultures began to form among slaves from different parts of Africa, combining elements from a variety of African cultures. The creation of a neo-African cultures among slaves allowed for the creation of new communities and the development of slave resistance. Music was an important factor in the recreation of community among slaves, leading to the creation of afro-Caribbean music.
Role of emancipation The Haitian Revolution saw the end of slavery in Haiti at the end of the 18th century. This effectively saw Haiti as the first nation in the world to abolish slavery.Henochsberg, S. (2016). Public debt and slavery: the case of Haiti (1760–1915). Paris School of Economics. Following the Haitian revolution, Britain concluded the importation of slaves in 1807 and began the process of abolition in 1823. The abolition of slavery in Britain was said to be complete in 1838. Although the slave trade was abolished in Britain in the early 19th century, the slave trade continued via the Iberian Peninsula until as late as 1873. Due to this, approximately 135 000 slaves continued to be traded annually between 1800 and 1850. The abolition of slavery restricted afro-Caribbean music in one way as it led to a decreased number of slaves arriving from Africa and a weakened link between African people living in the Caribbean and their homeland. At the same time the abolition of slavery opened the door for previously enslaved Africans to participate more freely in music again, leading to further development of afro-Caribbean music.
Stylistic influences Afro-Caribbean music is characterised by the combined influence of African, European and indigenous Caribbean cultures.
African music Many rhythms, song styles and vocal characteristics used in afro-Caribbean music are reflective of traditional African music. Examples of African vocal characteristics include call-and-response invocations and textually repetitious, simple lyrics. Afro-Caribbean music places a strong emphasis on rhythm, or a series of repeated pulses, this is also reflective of the influence of African music. Dominant African influences include those from the Bantu, Kongo, Fon and Yoruba peoples. This is largely reflective of the fact that many slaves were from Western or Central Africa due to their proximity to the Atlantic seaboard.
European music The European influence seen in afro-Caribbean music stems from music that was popular in the colonial era such as classical, folk and dance music. Popular dance music at the time included the contradance and quadrille. Elements of the contradance have been incorporated into afro-Caribbean sub-genres such as the Merengue. Due to the large numbers of Spanish settlers compared to English settlers in Caribbean colonies, the European influence on afro-Caribbean music is more strongly Spanish. Examples of European influence in afro-Caribbean music include the presence of tonal harmonies, melodies and instruments of European origin.BBC. (n.d. a). Caribbean bitesize. Retrieved May 11, 2021, from BBC – GCSE bitesize: https:/www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/ztp49j6/revision/1 The lyrics of afro-Caribbean music are most commonly in European languages such as Spanish, English or French. The presence of European instruments and elements in afro-Caribbean music is reflective of the European music that slaves were forced to play for their masters. Over time, African elements, such as percussion and call-and-response invocations, were combined with traditional European elements. This led to the creation of a new hybrid genre, afro-Caribbean music.
Indigenous Caribbean and American music Afro-Caribbean music was influenced by the ceremonial-style, religious music of the native American people (including indigenous Caribbean people). Traditional elements such as call-and-response style singing and the use of percussive instruments (such as Güiros and Maracas) are reflected in afro-Caribbean music.
Musical characteristics
Components
Polyrhythms The combination of multiple series of pulses is referred to as a polyrhythm. These rhythms are often created using drums such as the batá. This rhythm is used as a base, to which vocals and other instruments can be added to. The Polyrhythm pattern is common in music derived from Western and Central Africa. In afro-Caribbean music, the polyrhythm is mainly seen in the music derived from Cuba and Haiti.
Call-and-response invocations Call-and-response invocations refer to a vocal technique where one phrase is sung by a member of the group and then it is answered by another member, who sings a complimentary phrase. This technique was brought to the Caribbean by slaves that came from Western and Central Africa. Call-and-response invocations are used throughout the afro-Caribbean music genre, and particularly in the music derived from Cuba.
Cinquillo rhythm The cinquillo is a rhythmic pattern that is used in afro-Caribbean music. This rhythmic cell originated in sub-Saharan Africa and was brought to the Caribbean by enslaved people of Bantu origin. Once arriving in the Caribbean, the cinquillo beat was transformed and refined, in countries such as Haiti and Cuba, to fit the evolving afro-Caribbean music genre. The cinquillo is created by use of percussion instruments such as the claves and güiro.
Instruments
Drums
Drums are an important element of afro-Caribbean music, culture and religion. Drums are used in many Rituals and ceremonies such as the Haitian vodun ceremony. During the slave era, this strong link of drums with culture, religion and solidarity was recognised by white oppressors and drumming was subsequently banned in an attempt to curtail potential rebellions.
Congas, bongos, bombo and batá drums are most commonly heard in afro-Caribbean music, however, many other variations of drums are also used including the tumba francesa, palo, yuka and makuta drums. The influence of the drums in afro-Caribbean music is mixed with many popular drum varieties originating in Latin America, Europe and Africa. In most circumstances the roots of these drum types lead back to African origin. A prominent drumming influence from Africa is the use of the hands to create music over a variety of Timbres, unlike in European music, where sticks are favoured to strike the drums.
Batá Main article: batá drum
Batá drums have an hourglass shape with a drumhead at either end. Traditionally, a batá drum would consist of a wooden base with drumheads made of skin, pulled taut, at each end.Batá drums are available in a variety of sizes, each with a different purpose in creating overall rhythm and sound. Sound is produced by the individual striking the drumheads on each side with their hands. This particular variety of drum originated in Nigeria among the Yoruba people and was once an instrument used for religious purposes to worship the African Orishas. The batá drums are now widely used in Latin American and afro-Caribbean music.
Bombo Main article: bombo drum
The bombo drum (also known as the bombo criollo) is another drum commonly seen in afro-Caribbean music. This drum is of South American origin and is commonly used in indigenous music of the region. The bombo drum is composed of a large, hollow wooden drum with an animal skin for the drumhead. Sound is produced on the bombo drum by striking the middle of the drumhead with the hand and by striking the rim of the drumhead with a small stick or other tool.
Congas and bongos
Main articles: Conga drum, bongo drum