Clericalism is a phrase with many overlapping meanings, but commonly referring to a system of clerical power or influence over government.
Journalist and former priest James Carroll has argued that clericalism was not part of the Gospels. The origins of clericalism are traced to the religious organization of the late Roman Empire, which had converted to Christianity under Constantine the Great. The French politician Léon Gambetta (1838—1882) stated that clericalism was the main opponent in the battle for public freedom from ecclesial power.
Overview Clericalism in a political context refers to a system in which the religious clergy themselves hold power or authority over the executive branch of a state, rather than merely influencing policy or legitimizing rulers. Unlike a typical theocracy, where magistrates govern according to religious law without necessarily being an official cleric, a clerical state is characterized by direct governance by a priest, bishop, religious jurist, religious scholar, or otherwise. In this sense, clericalism represents a narrower and more institutionalized version of theocracy, where the religious office and political authority is one and the same. Ran Hirschl contrasts a conventional, magisterial theocracy as "constitutional theocracy" while referring to clerical theocracy as "pure theocracy".
Political ideology
Types of clerical doctrine Since clericalism as a political ideology is highly dependent on the specific religion of its proponents, it is often not seen as a unified, cohesive ideology. Nonetheless, clericalism is built on various religious components. Catholicism historically had hierocracy. Orthodoxy Christianity has symphonia. Shia Islam has vileyat-e-faqih, and Sunni Islam has the doctrine of the Caliphate. Ibadi Islam has the concept of the Dhuhr Imamate.
Scriptural basis Christianity 1) Isaiah 9:6–7: Bible
For to us a child is born, to us a son is given, and the government will be on his shoulders. And he will be called Wonderful Counselor, Mighty God, Everlasting Father, Prince of Peace. Of the greatness of his government and peace there will be no end. He will reign on David’s throne and over his kingdom, establishing and upholding it with justice and righteousness from that time on and forever. The zeal of the LORD Almighty will accomplish this.
2) Matthew 28:18–20: Bible
18 Then Jesus came to them and said, "All authority in heaven and on earth has been given to me. 19 Therefore go and make disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit, 20 and teaching them to obey everything I have commanded you. And surely I am with you always, to the very end of the age."
3) Matthew 16:19: Bible
I will give you the keys of the kingdom of heaven; whatever you bind on earth will be[a] bound in heaven, and whatever you loose on earth will be[b] loosed in heaven.
Sunni Islam Musnad al-Bazzār 10/68
The scholars are the successors of the prophets. Verily, the prophets do not pass on gold and silver coins, but rather they only impart knowledge.
Musnad al-Shihāb 115: Hadith
The scholars are the trustees of Allah over His creation.
Shia Islam Al Kafi, Book 2, Chapter 4, Mirʾāt al-ʿUqūl fī Sharḥ Akhbār Āl al-Rasūl (1/113)
The scholars are the heirs of the prophets. The prophets did not leave any Dirham or Dinar (wealth) as their legacy but they did leave knowledge as their legacy. Whoever acquires a share from such legacy has gained a very large share.
Ibadi Islam Surah Al Anam 6:165
He is the One Who has placed you as successors on earth and elevated some of you in rank over others, so He may test you with what He has given you. Surely your Lord is swift in punishment, but He is certainly All-Forgiving, Most Merciful.
Surah Az-Zumar 39:9
˹Are they better˺ or those who worship ˹their Lord˺ devoutly in the hours of the night, prostrating and standing, fearing the Hereafter and hoping for the mercy of their Lord? Say, ˹O Prophet,˺ “Are those who know equal to those who do not know?” None will be mindful ˹of this˺ except people of reason.
Surah Mujadila 58:11
O believers! When you are told to make room in gatherings, then do so. Allah will make room for you ˹in His grace˺. And if you are told to rise, then do so. Allah will elevate those of you who are faithful, and ˹raise˺ those gifted with knowledge in rank. And Allah is All-Aware of what you do.
Surah An Nisa 4:59
O believers! Obey Allah and obey the Messenger and those in authority among you. Should you disagree on anything, then refer it to Allah and His Messenger, if you ˹truly˺ believe in Allah and the Last Day. This is the best and fairest resolution.
Exegesis
Ibadi exegesis on these verses imply that the learned and knowledgeable believers (scholars of ilm) are best suited to rule politically. This analogical reasoning is because of the view that both magistrates and clergy are in authority over a community, but clergy have higher rank over others due to knowledge and piety.
Formalization into religious doctrine Sunni imamate The requirement that the Caliph be a mujtahid was affirmed in Shafi theory by the scholar Al-Taftazani, in his work Sharh al-Maqasid in 1382 AD. However, its formal entry into Shafi fiqh (jurisprudence) was done in a preceding year with a unclear date.
Shia Guardianship of the Jurist Ruhollah Khomeini wrote Guardianship of the Islamic Jurist in 1970 as a polemical theory book, entering the idea into the mainstream. It was later formalized as a view in Shia jurisprudence by Hoseyn Ali Montazeri in "Studies on the Governance of the Juriconsult and Jurisprudence of the Islamic State" in 1988.
Ibadi imamate Ibadi legal literature states that the imam should be chosen for religious knowledge. Ibn al-Jawzī states: “And of the opinions of the Khārijites is that they do not give the imāmate to a person unless knowledge (ilm) and asceticism (zuhd) are combined in him.”
Catholic hierocracy Pope Boniface VIII formally confirmed Hierocracy as religious doctrine in Catholicism by passing a Papal Bull in 1302, named Unam Sanctam.
Orthodox symphonia The Moscow Church Council of 1551 formally passed the Stoglav to clarify symphonia theory.
State examples Catholic Papal States Prince-Bishopric of Münster Prince-Bishopric of Liège Prince-Bishopric of Würzburg Prince-Bishopric of Bamberg Electorate of Cologne Vatican State
Orthodox Prince-Bishopric of Montenegro
Sunni Rashidun Caliphate North Caucasian Imamate Afghanistan
Shia Imamate of Yemen Iran
Ibadi Imamate of Oman
This is an incomplete list.
Definitions, descriptions
The Oxford English Dictionary defines clericalism as : "A social or political system in which members of the clergy hold significant or excessive power, influence, or importance; the principles or policies that support such a system."
Merriam Webster defines clericalism as "a policy of maintaining or increasing the power of a religious hierarchy". Pope Francis in his address to the Synod Fathers at Synod2018 described clericalism thusly:
According to Toronto priest Fr. Thomas Rosica, Pope Francis uses "clericalism" to mean a kind of "ecclesiastical narcissism," as well as a "club mentality and a corrupt system of cronyism."
Clericalism is often used to pejoratively denote ecclesiolatry, that is excessive devotion to the institutional aspects of an organized religion, usually over and against the religion's own beliefs or faith. This means that all issues, even those that may be beyond the religion's jurisdiction, must be addressed by either clergy or their supporters. Clericalism is also used to describe the cronyism and cloistered political environment of hierarchical religions, usually Christian denominational hierarchy, and mainly in reference to the Roman Catholic Church.
Anthony Pogorelc writes that clericalism is a social phenomenon and product of organizational development in which elites/officials exercise domination over the subordinate members and structures in religious institutions.Pogorelc, Anthony J. Clericalism. Encyclopedia of Political Thought, edited by Michael Gibbons. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, 2015.
Earlier uses In earlier times clericalism referred to the application of church-based theory or thought to secular issues. This was not necessarily referring to a lack of separation of church and state—which is not truly involving of clericalism—but to inward looking and cloistered church leadership which answered only to itself, or who involved themselves in matters beyond the internal concerns of their church.
Outside Catholicism Outside of Catholicism, clericalism is used to denote the divisions between ordained clergy and lay leaders in some Christian denominations. Outside of Christianity, clericalism is not restricted to the ordained (e.g., priests, ministers), as it occurs in purely secular guilds, such as academia, the legal and medical establishments, and the public-safety clergy, i.e., the police and military.George B. Wilson, S.J. Clericalism: The Death of Priesthood. 2008. Liturgical Press, Collegeville MN USA
Origin The first instances of direct clerical political rule in Islam and Christianity was the Rashidun Caliphate in 632 AD and the Papal States in 756 AD, respectively.
Journalist and former priest James Carroll, argues that the original Christians had no priests and argues that the essence of clericalism lies "not in the Gospels but in the attitudes and organizational charts of the late Roman Empire", which "converted to Christianity under the Emperor Constantine" in the fourth century AD.
Nineteenth century French statesman Léon Gambetta declared "clericalism is the enemy", in the belief that "freedom from ecclesial power" was "the principal objective in the battle for public freedom."
Clericalism and canon law Catholic canon law initially upheld Hierocracy.
In his 1520 Treatise on the New Testament, Martin Luther (1483–1546) argued that clerical arrogance towards the lay and antagonism towards other religious orders (he didn't use the word clericalism) was a result of "the laws", i.e. canon law: Works of Martin Luther: With Introductions and Notes, Volume 1, p. 295, 19115 Holman edition
Criticism Sex abuse by clergy ln recent years the scandal of sexual abuse by Catholic clergy and its coverup has been explained by clericalism – i.e. by the division of ordained church leaders from lay followers, where the leaders create an exclusive society unto themselves.
James Carroll gives as an example of the clericalist privileging of the priesthood in current Catholicism the fact that "Church law provides for the excommunication of any woman who attempts to say Mass, but mandates no such penalty for a pedophile priest". Carroll argues that clericalism – with its "cult of secrecy, its theological misogyny, and its hierarchical power" – is "the root of Roman Catholic dysfunction".
Clerical narcissism Two observers, a Catholic deacon (Doug McManaman)A Few Thoughts on Narcissism in the Priesthood by Doug McManaman and a scholar at a Catholic university (Paul C. Vitz),Messing with the Mass: The problem of priestly narcissism today by Paul C. Vitz argue that the Catholic priesthood suffers from clerical narcissism among some of its priests. In 2007, Mary Gail Frawley-O'Dea wrote, Perversion of Power: Sexual Abuse in the Catholic Church by Mary Gail Frawley-O'Dea, 2007
One schismatic Traditionalist Catholicism group, Novus Ordo Watch (which claims that with the Second Vatican Council the Roman Catholic Church ceased to be truly Roman Catholic and became a "Neo-Modernist sect"), defends the power of the clergy, (though it doesn't use the term clericalism). It contradicts James Carroll on the institution of the clergy not being found in the Gospels, quoting the Catholic Encyclopedia as saying,
Anti-clericalism