Lead(II) acetate

Lead(II) acetate, also known as lead(II) ethanoate and formerly known as sugar of lead (or of Saturn), is a white crystalline chemical compound with a slightly sweet taste. Its chemical formula is usually expressed as or , where Ac represents the acetyl group. Like many other lead compounds, it causes lead poisoning. Lead acetate is soluble in water and glycerin, and slightly soluble in ethanol. With water it forms the trihydrate, , a colourless or white efflorescent monoclinic crystalline substance.

The substance is used as a reagent to make other lead compounds and as a fixative for some dyes. In low concentrations, it formerly served as the principal active ingredient in progressive types of hair colouring dyes. Lead(II) acetate is also used as a mordant in textile printing and dyeing, and as a drier in paints and varnishes. It was historically used as a sweetener and preservative in wines and in other foods and for cosmetics.

Production Lead(II) acetate can be made by boiling elemental lead in acetic acid and hydrogen peroxide. This method will also work with lead(II) carbonate or lead(II) oxide.

Lead(II) acetate can also be made by dissolving lead(II) oxide in acetic acid:

Lead(II) acetate can also be made via a single-displacement reaction between copper acetate and lead metal:

Structure The crystal structure of anhydrous lead(II) acetate has been described as a 2D coordination polymer. In comparison, lead(II) acetate trihydrate's structure is a 1D coordination polymer. In the trihydrate, the Pb2+ ion's coordination sphere consists of nine oxygen atoms belonging to three water molecules, two bidentate acetate groups and two bridging acetate groups. The coordination geometry at Pb is a monocapped square antiprism. The trihydrate thermally decomposes to a hemihydrate, Pb(OAc)2·H2O, and to basic acetates such as Pb4O(OAc)6 and Pb2O(OAc)2.

+Comparison of anhydrous and trihydrate crystal structures AnhydrousPb(OAc)2 TrihydratePb(OAc)2·3H2O Leadcoordinationsphere Strongly bondedaggregation 2D sheet 1D chain Weakly bondedaggregation sheets stacked withhydrophobic surfaces in contact chains linked by hydrogen bonds

Uses Lead acetate is used as a precursor to other lead compounds such as the various carbonate.

Niche and laboratory uses Lead(II) acetate paper is used to detect the poisonous gas hydrogen sulfide. The gas reacts with lead(II) acetate on the moistened test paper to form a grey precipitate of lead(II) sulfide.

An aqueous solution of lead(II) acetate is a byproduct of the process used in the cleaning and maintenance of stainless steel firearm suppressors (silencers) and compensators when using a 1:1 ratio of hydrogen peroxide and white vinegar (acetic acid). The solution is agitated by the bubbling action of the hydrogen peroxide, with the main reaction being the oxidation of lead by hydrogen peroxide and subsequent dissolution of lead oxide by the acetic acid, which forms lead acetate. Because of its high toxicity, this chemical solution must be appropriately disposed by a chemical processing facility or hazardous materials centre. Alternatively, the solution may be reacted with sulfuric acid to precipitate nearly insoluble lead(II) sulfate. The solid may then be removed by mechanical filtration and is safer to dispose of than aqueous lead acetate.

Lead acetate is also used sometimes to stain samples in preparation for electron microscopy.Ellis, E.A. (2007). Poststaining Grids for Transmission Electron Microscopy. In: Kuo, J. (eds) Electron Microscopy. Methods in Molecular Biology™, vol 369. Humana Press. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-59745-294-6_6

Historical uses

Sweetener Like other lead(II) salts, lead(II) acetate has a sweet taste, which led to its historical use as a sugar substitute in both wines and foods."The Disturbingly Long History of Lead Toxicity in Winemaking." Anna Archibald, 30 July 2020. Retrieved: 22 December, 2020. The ancient Romans, who had few sweeteners besides honey, would boil must (unfiltered grape juice) in lead pots to produce a reduced sugar syrup called defrutum, concentrated again into sapa. This syrup was used to sweeten wine and to sweeten and preserve fruit. It is possible that lead(II) acetate or other lead compounds leaching into the syrup might have caused lead poisoning in those who consumed it. Lead acetate is no longer used in the production of sweeteners because of its recognized toxicity. Legislation prohibiting its use as a wine sweetener circa 1750 proved ineffective until decades later, when chemical methods of detecting its presence had been developed.

The earliest documented fatal poisoning of an individual by lead acetate was that of Pope Clement II, who died in October 1047. A toxicological examination of his remains conducted in the mid-20th century confirmed centuries-old rumors that he had been poisoned with sugar of lead.Specht, W. and Fischer, K. (1959). [Evidence of poisoning in the remains of a 900-year-old corpse] (in German). 124: 61–84. It is not clear whether he was assassinated.

In 1787 painter and biographer Albert Christoph Dies swallowed, by accident, approximately of lead acetate. His recovery from this poison was slow and incomplete. He lived with illnesses until his death in 1822. English translation in:

Although the use of lead(II) acetate as a sweetener was already illegal at that time, composer Ludwig van Beethoven may have died of lead poisoning caused by wines adulterated with lead acetate (see also Beethoven's liver).

In 1887, 38 hunting horses belonging to Captain William Hollwey Steeds were poisoned in their stables at Clonsilla House, Dublin, Ireland. At least ten of the horses died. Captain Steeds, an "extensive commission agent", had previously supplied the horses for the Bray and Greystones Coach. It transpired that they had been fed a bran mash that had been sweetened with a toxic lead acetate.Weekly Irish Times, Saturday 15 October 1887; Enniskillen Chronicle and Erne Packet, 24 October 1887, p. 3

Cosmetics Lead(II) acetate and white lead have been used in cosmetics throughout history.Gunn, Fenja. (1973) The Artificial Face: A History of Cosmetics. — as cited in Leisure Activities of an 18th Century Lady websites.umich.edu

It was once used for men's hair colouring productsLead Based Hair Products: Too Hazardous for Household Use - Results, Howard W. Mielke, PhD, Myiesha D. Taylor, Chris R. Gonzales, M. Kelley Smith, Pamela V. Daniels, and Ayanna V.Buckner. Journal of American Pharmaceutical Association (NS37, Jan/Feb 1997:85-89). like Grecian Formula. The manufacturer did not remove lead acetate from its product until 2018. Lead acetate has been replaced by bismuth citrate as the progressive colorant. Its use in cosmetics has been banned in Canada by Health Canada since 2005 (effective at the end of 2006) based on tests showing possible carcinogenicity and reproductive toxicity, and it is also banned in the European Union.

Medical uses Lead(II) acetate solution was a commonly used folk remedy for sore nipples.The American Frugal Housewife, by Lydia M. Child gutenberg.org In modern medicine, for a time, it was used as an astringent, in the form of Goulard's extract, and it has also been used to treat poison ivy.Laboratory manual in biology. Sharpe. 1911, American Book Company. p. 351

During the Lewis and Clark Expedition, on May 10, 1805, Captain Meriwether Lewis wrote that he used "sugar of lead" mixed with white vitriol and water as a treatment for sore eyes.

In the 1850s, Mary Seacole applied lead(II) acetate, among other remedies, against an epidemic of cholera in Panama.Mary Seacole (1990), Wonderful Adventures of Mrs. Seacole in Many Lands, Chapter IV, Oxford University Press reprint, ; (2005 Penguin 20th Century Classics reprint, ed. Sarah Salih) Jane Robinson (2004), Mary Seacole: The Charismatic Black Nurse who became a heroine of the Crimea, p.53. Constable

Other historic uses Lead acetate was used in making of slow match during the Middle Ages. It was made by mixing vinegar with litharge, a natural form of lead(II) oxide. It was also used in chemical coloring of metals.Fishlock, David : Metal Colouring, Teddington 1962.,p.219

Sugar of lead was a recommended agent added to linseed oil during heating to produce "boiled" linseed oil, the lead and heat acting to cause the oil to cure faster than raw linseed oil.Andés, Louis Edgar, and Arthur Morris. Oil colours and printers' inks a practical handbook treating of linseed oil, boiled oil, paints, artists' colours, lampblack, and printers' inks, black and coloured. London: Scott, Greenwood. 1903. 41. Print.

Lead(II) acetate ("salt of Saturn") was used to synthesise acetone which was then known as "spirit of Saturn" for being made with the salt of Saturn and thought to be a lead compound in the 17th century.Mel Gorman, History of acetone (1600–1850), 1962 Sir Isaac Newton called it not "salt of Saturn" but "sugar of Saturn", Saccharum Saturnii, and used it to make a prism for his refractive experiments by pouring a solution of water and Saccharum Saturnii into a prism made of recycled mirror glass.Newton, I. (1979) Opticks, or, a treatise of the reflections, refractions, inflections & colours of light. New York: Dover Publications. Facsimile of Newton, I. (1730) 4th edition, p. 72.

Lead(II) acetate

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