Since independence, Indonesian foreign relations have adhered to a "free and active" foreign policy, seeking to play a role in regional affairs commensurate with its size and location but avoiding involvement in conflicts among major powers. During the presidency of Sukarno, Indonesia's foreign relations were marked by engagement with other newly independent nations in Asia and Africa, as exemplified by the Bandung Conference, the subsequent foundation of the Non-Aligned Movement and a confrontational attitude towards Western powers, justified by a belief in the CONEFO and opposition to what Sukarno termed as NEKOLIM (Neocolonialism and Imperialism).
After a US-backed ouster of Sukarno and left-wing elements in 1965, Indonesian foreign policy underwent a major shift under the "New Order" government, as President Suharto moved away from the stridently anti-Western, anti-American posturing that characterised the latter part of the Sukarno era. Following Suharto's ouster in 1998, Indonesia's government has preserved the broad outlines of Suharto's independent, moderate foreign policy. Preoccupation with domestic problems has not prevented successive presidents from travelling abroad.
Indonesia's relations with the international community were strained as a result of its invasion of neighbouring East Timor in December 1975, the subsequent annexation and occupation, the independence referendum in 1999, and the resulting violence afterwards. As one of the founding members of Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), established in 1967, and also as the largest country in Southeast Asia, Indonesia has put ASEAN as the cornerstone of its foreign policy and outlook. After the transformation from Suharto's regime to a relatively open and democratic country in the 21st century, Indonesia today exercises its influence to promote co-operation, development, democracy, security, peace and stability in the region through its leadership in ASEAN. Currently, Israel is the only UN member state that does not have formal diplomatic relations with Indonesia, although they maintain informal relations.
Indonesia managed to play a role as a peacemaker in the 2008–2013 Cambodian–Thai border crisis. Indonesia and other ASEAN member countries collectively have also played a role in encouraging the government of Myanmar to open up its political system and introduce other reforms more quickly.
Given its geographic and demographic size, rising capabilities and diplomatic initiatives, scholars have classified Indonesia as one of Asia-Pacific's middle powers.
Historical issues The foreign policy of Indonesia has evolved over time and has been shaped by various factors such as its historical context, geographic location, national interests, and leadership. Here is an overview of the historical context of Indonesia's foreign policy:
Founding Principles: Indonesia's foreign policy is rooted in the country's founding principles of Pancasila, which emphasizes peaceful coexistence, mutual respect, and non-interference in the domestic affairs of other countries.Rizal Sukma, "The evolution of Indonesia's foreign policy: an Indonesian view." Asian Survey 35.3 (1995): 304–315 online Western New Guinea. The western part of New Guinea was under Dutch colonial rule and known as "West Irian." When Indonesia gained independence from the Netherlands in 1945, the Dutch retained control over West Irian, but Indonesia claimed it. The United Nations supervised the transfer of West Irian to Indonesia in 1963. The region officially became a part of Indonesia in 1969 through a UN-sanctioned referendum known as the Act of Free Choice.John Saltford, "United Nations involvement with the act of self-determination in West Irian (Indonesian West New Guinea) 1968 to 1969." Indonesia 69 (2000): 71–92. online Non-Aligned Movement: After gaining independence from Dutch colonial rule in 1945, Indonesia played a prominent role in the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM). The NAM was a group of countries that chose not to align with any major power bloc during the Cold War, advocating for a neutral stance and promoting cooperation among developing nations.Lorenz M. Lüthi, "The Non-Aligned Movement and the Cold War, 1961–1973." Journal of Cold War Studies 18.4 (2016): 98–147 online . Regional Leadership: Indonesia has sought to establish itself as a leader in the Southeast Asian region. It was one of the founding members of the ASEAN (Association of Southeast Asian Nations) in 1967 and has been actively involved in regional initiatives to promote peace, stability, and economic integration in Southeast Asia.Dewi Fortuna Anwar, Indonesia in ASEAN : foreign policy and regionalism (1994) "Free and Active" Foreign Policy: In the 1950s and 1960s, under the leadership of President Sukarno, Indonesia pursued a "free and active" foreign policy. This policy aimed at asserting Indonesia's independence and taking an active role in global affairs by participating in international organizations, supporting decolonization movements, and advocating for the rights of developing nations.Dewi Fortuna Anwar, "Reinvention in Indonesia's foreign policy strategy." East Asia Forum Quarterly 5#4 (2013) online. Post-Suharto Era: Following the resignation of President Suharto in 1998, Indonesia underwent political and economic reforms. This period saw a shift in foreign policy priorities, focusing more on economic development, regional cooperation, and democracy promotion. Indonesia also embraced a more pragmatic approach in its foreign relations.Terence Lee, "The armed forces and transitions from authoritarian rule: Explaining the role of the military in 1986 Philippines and 1998 Indonesia." Comparative Political Studies 42.5 (2009): 640–669. online Timor-Leste: In 1975, shortly after East Timor declared independence from Portuguese colonial rule, Indonesia invaded and occupied the territory. The occupation lasted for 24 years and was marked by widespread human rights abuses, violence, and resistance from the East Timorese people. The international community largely condemned the occupation. Various human rights organizations and activists put pressure on Indonesia to leave. In 1999, Indonesia agreed to hold a UN-sponsored referendum to determine its political status. The majority of the East Timorese people voted for independence, leading to widespread violence and destruction orchestrated by pro-Indonesia militias. International peacekeeping forces, led by Australia, restored order. Timor-Leste finally achieved independence in 2002.James Cotton, East Timor, Australia and regional order: intervention and its aftermath in Southeast Asia (2004) online . Territorial Integrity: Indonesia places great importance on its territorial integrity and has been firm in its stance against any threats to its sovereignty. It has been involved in various territorial disputes, including those in the South China Sea, and has sought to resolve them through peaceful means, including diplomatic negotiations. Counterterrorism and Maritime Security: Indonesia has actively cooperated with regional and international partners in combating terrorism and ensuring maritime security. It has been affected by terrorist attacks in the past and has taken steps to enhance intelligence-sharing, border control, and counterterrorism efforts.Francisco Galamas, "Terrorism in Indonesia: an overview." Research Papers 4.10 (2015) online . Economic Diplomacy: With the world's fourth-largest population and a growing economy, Indonesia has focused on economic diplomacy to attract foreign investment, promote trade relations, and strengthen economic ties with other countries. It has pursued partnerships with both developed and developing nations to foster economic growth and development.Lili Yan et al. The Indonesian Economy: Trade and Industrial Policies (Taylor & Francis, 2018) Climate Change and Environmental Issues: As a country highly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change, Indonesia has been actively engaged in international efforts to address environmental issues. It has been a vocal advocate for sustainable development, forest conservation, and reducing greenhouse gas emissions.Mariah Measey, "Indonesia: a vulnerable country in the face of climate change." Global Majority E-Journal 1.1 (2010): 31–45. online Global and Regional Multilateralism: Indonesia actively participates in various multilateral organizations, including the United Nations (UN), the World Trade Organization (WTO), and the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC). It has sought to contribute to global peace, security, and development by engaging in multilateral dialogues and fostering regional cooperation.Ralf Emmers, "The role of middle powers in Asian multilateralism." Asia Policy 25.4 (2018): 42–47 extract.
Significant international memberships
Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)
A cornerstone of Indonesia's contemporary foreign policy is its participation in the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), of which it was a founding member in 1967 with Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore, and the Philippines. Since then, Brunei, Vietnam, Laos, Myanmar, and Cambodia also have joined ASEAN. While organised to promote shared economic, social, and cultural goals, ASEAN acquired a security dimension after Vietnam's liberation of Cambodia in 1979; this aspect of ASEAN expanded with the establishment of the ASEAN Regional Forum in 1994, which comprises 22 countries, including the US.
The Indonesian capital Jakarta is also the seat of ASEAN Secretariat. Other than serving their diplomatic missions for Indonesia, a number of foreign embassies and diplomatic mission in Jakarta are also accredited to ASEAN. The presence of the ASEAN Headquarters has made Jakarta a diplomatic hub in Southeast Asia in some regards.
In the late 1990s and early 2000s, Indonesia's domestic troubles distracted it from ASEAN matters and consequently reduced its influence within the organisation. However, after the political and economic transformation, from the turmoil of 1998 Reformasi to the relatively open and democratic civil society with rapid economic growth in the 2010s, Indonesia returned to the region's diplomatic stage by assuming its leadership role in ASEAN in 2011. Indonesia is viewed to have weight, international legitimacy and global appeal to draw support and attention from around the world to ASEAN. Indonesia believes that ASEAN can contribute positively to the international community, by promoting economic development and co-operation, improving security, peace, the stability of ASEAN, and making the Southeast Asia region far from conflicts.
Indonesia's bilateral relations with three neighbouring ASEAN members—Malaysia, Singapore, and Vietnam—are not without challenges. If not appropriately managed, it would result in mutual mistrust and suspicion, thus hindering bilateral and regional co-operation. In the era of rising Indonesia, which might assert its leadership role within ASEAN, the problem could become more significant. Nevertheless, the rise of Indonesia should be regarded in the sense of optimism. First, although Indonesia is likely to become assertive, the general tone of its foreign policy is mainly liberal and accommodating. The consolidation of the Indonesian democratic government played a key role and influence in ASEAN. The second, institutional web of ASEAN will sustain engagements and regular meetings between regional elites, thus deepening their mutual understanding and personal connections.
Non-Aligned Movement (NAM)