Empress Zetian (17 February 624 – 16 December 705), personal name Wu Zhao, was the only undisputed female sovereign in the history of China. She had previously held power as the empress consort of Emperor Gaozong of the Tang dynasty from 660 to 683 and as empress dowager during the reigns of her sons, Emperors Zhongzong and Ruizong, between 683 and 690. She was the sole ruler of the self-styled Zhou dynasty from 690 to 705.
In her early life, Wu served as a concubine of Emperor Taizong. After his death, she married his successor, Emperor Gaozong, becoming empress in 655. Wu exercised substantial political influence even before her elevation and gradually came to dominate court affairs. After Gaozong suffered a debilitating stroke in 660, she effectively administered the empire on his behalf until his death in 683. Breaking with precedent, Wu then consolidated power and prevented her sons from ruling. In 690, she proclaimed the Zhou dynasty in place of the Tang and crowned herself emperor.
During her 45-year de facto rule over China, Wu institutionalized the use of informants and enforced stringent legal measures, purged members of the Tang royal house and veteran officials from earlier administrations, reformed the civil service system to promote merit, patronized Buddhism as well as literature and the arts, and conducted military campaigns against Turkic and Tibetan incursions. Her rule formed part of the High Tang period, a historic peak in China's political power and cultural influence. In her later years, her governance became increasingly autocratic and extravagant. She was removed from power in the , which abolished the Zhou dynasty and restored the Tang, and she died a few months later.
Names and titles
In Chinese history and literature, Wu Zetian () was known by various names and titles. Mention of her in the English language has only increased their number. A difficulty in English translations is that they tend to specify gender (as in the case of "emperor" versus "empress" or "prince" versus "princess"), whereas, in Classical Chinese, words such as hou (, "sovereign", "prince", "queen") or huangdi (, "imperial supreme ruler", "royal deity") are of grammatically indeterminate gender.
Names In Wu's time, women's birth names were rarely recorded. She changed her name to Wu Zhao after rising to power, often written as ( has also been written as on occasion, and both are derivatives of , which may be her original name, with 瞾 being one of the characters invented by Wu). Wu was her patronymic surname, which she retained, according to traditional Chinese practice, after marriage to Gaozong, of the Li family. Emperor Taizong gave her the art name Wu Mei (), meaning "glamorous". Thus, Chinese people often refer to her as Wu Mei or Wu Meiniang () when they write about her youth, as Wu Hou () when referring to her as empress consort and empress dowager, and as Wu Zetian () as her posthumous title, given only after her death.
Because her family name, Wu (), is a homophone for the second character in 'parrot' (), there are many stories and jokes that make use of imagery of a parrot to communicate about Wu and her clan. In particular, Emperor Gaozong's family name, Li (), is a homophone with a type of cat 狸貓 (raccoon) – so a story circulated about a cat eating a parrot at court.
Titles During her life, and posthumously, Wu was awarded various official titles. Both () and () are titles (modifications, or added characters to are of lesser importance). Born Wu Zhao, she is not properly known as "Wu Hou" (Empress Wu) until receiving this title in 655, nor is she properly known as "Wu Zetian", her regnal name, until 690, when she took the title .
Legend: Tang dynasty (唐朝, 618–907) Zhou dynasty (周朝, 690–705, ruled by Wu Zetian)
+ Titles and honorifics held by Wu Zetian throughout her life and posthumous recognition Period (with reign years) Year Declared Title (Pinyin) Literal Translation Title Notes Reign of Emperor Gaozu of Tang (618–626) 624 Furen Lady 夫人 Early consort title during Emperor Gaozu’s reign. Reign of Emperor Taizong of Tang (626–649) 637 Cairen Lady of Talent 才人 One of the nine 5th-ranking consorts under Taizong. Reign of Emperor Gaozong of Tang (649–683) 650 Zhaoyi Lady of Bright Deportment 昭儀 One of the nine 3rd-ranking consorts (嬪; pín); marked her rise in the inner palace. 655 Huanghou Empress 皇后 Officially became Empress of Emperor Gaozong. 674 Tianhou Heavenly Empress 天后 Elevated to a divine-associated title. Reign of Emperor Zhongzong of Tang (684) 683 Wu Huang Taihou Empress Dowager Wu 武皇太后 Ruled as regent following Gaozong’s death. Reign of Emperor Ruizong of Tang (684–690) 684 Wu Huang Taihou Empress Dowager Wu 武皇太后 Continued regency; de facto ruler. Reign as Empress Regnant of Zhou dynasty (690–705) 690 Shengshen Huangdi Holy Divine Emperor 聖神皇帝 Declared herself Emperor of Zhou. 693 Jinlun Shengshen Huangdi Golden Wheel Holy Emperor 金輪聖神皇帝 Added “Golden Wheel” (Buddhist cosmology reference). 694 Yue Gu Jinlun Shengshen Huangdi Past-Surpassing Golden Wheel Holy Emperor 越古金輪聖神皇帝 Title emphasizing surpassing antiquity. 695 Jinlun Shengshen Huangdi Golden Wheel Holy Emperor 金輪聖神皇帝 Reaffirmed imperial divinity. 695 Tiance Jinlun Dadi Heaven-Ordained Golden Wheel Emperor 天策金輪大帝 Linked to her ruling institution “Tiance Fu.” 705 Zetian Dasheng Huangdi Heaven-Following Great Holy Emperor 則天大聖皇帝 Final Zhou title before Tang restoration. Second reign of Emperor Zhongzong of Tang (705–710) 705 Zetian Dasheng Huanghou Heaven-following Great Holy Empress 則天大聖皇后 Posthumous-like recognition under restored Tang. Second reign of Emperor Ruizong of Tang (710–712) 710 Tianhou Heavenly Empress 天后 Honored title after abdication. 710 Dasheng Tianhou Great Holy Heavenly Empress 大聖天后 Further sanctified epithet. 712 Tianhou Shengdi Heavenly Empress Holy Emperor 天后聖帝 Combination of imperial and divine status. 712 Shenghou Holy Empress 聖后 Final honorary style of late years. Reign of Emperor Xuanzong of Tang (713–756) 716 Zetian Huanghou Heaven-Following Empress 則天皇后 Restored Tang posthumous recognition. 749 Zetian Shun Sheng Huanghou Heaven-Following Holiness-Abiding Empress 則天順聖皇后 Full temple-style posthumous title granted by Xuanzong.
"Empress" Various Chinese titles have been translated into English as "empress", including "empress" in both the sense of empress consort and empress regnant. Generally, the monarch was male and his chief spouse was given a title such as (), often translated as "empress" or more specifically "empress consort". Upon the emperor's death, the surviving empress consort could become empress dowager, sometimes wielding considerable political power as regent during the minority of the (male) heir to the position of emperor.
Since the time of Qin Shi Huang (259–210 BC), the Emperor of China using the title (, translated as "emperor" or "empress (regnant)" as appropriate), Wu was the only woman in the history of China to assume the title . Her tenure as de facto ruler of China and official regent of the Tang dynasty (first through her husband and then through her sons, from 665 to 690) was not without precedent in Chinese history, but she broke precedent when she founded her own dynasty in 690, the Zhou () (interrupting the Tang dynasty), ruling personally under the name Sacred and Divine Huangdi (), and variations thereof, from 690 to 705.
Wu Zetian and Empress Dowager Liu of the Song dynasty are said to be the only women in Chinese history to have worn a yellow robe, ordinarily reserved for the emperor's sole use, as a monarch or co-ruler in their own right.
Background and early life
The Wu family clan originated in Wenshui County, Bingzhou (an ancient name of the city of Taiyuan, Shanxi). Wu Zetian's birthplace is not documented in preserved historical literature and remains disputed. Some scholars argue that Wu was born in Wenshui, some that it was Lizhou () (modern-day Guangyuan, Sichuan), while others insist she was born in the imperial capital of Chang'an (today known as Xi'an).
Wu Zetian was born in the seventh year of the reign of Emperor Gaozu of Tang. In the same year, a total eclipse of the sun was visible across China. Her father, Wu Shiyue, worked in the timber business and the family was relatively well-off. Her mother was from the powerful Yang family, distant relatives of the imperial family of the Sui dynasty. During the final years of Emperor Yang of Sui, Li Yuan, the future Emperor Gaozu of Tang, stayed in the Wu household many times and became close to the Wu family while holding appointments in both Hedong and Taiyuan. After Li Yuan overthrew Emperor Yang, he was generous to the Wu family, giving them grain, land, clothing and wealth. Once the Tang dynasty was established, Wu Shihou held a succession of senior ministerial posts, including the governorship of Yangzhou, Lizhou, and Jingzhou () (modern-day Jiangling County, Hubei).
Wu was encouraged by her parents to read books and pursue her education, an uncommon situation for the women at the time. She read and learned about many topics, such as music, calligraphy, literature, history, politics, and other governmental affairs. At age 14, she was taken to be an imperial concubine (lesser wife) of Emperor Taizong of Tang. It was there that she became a type of secretary. This opportunity allowed her to continue to pursue her education. She was given the title of cairen (), the title for one of the consorts with the 5th rank in Tang's nine-rank system for imperial officials, nobles, and consorts. When she was summoned to the palace, her mother, the Lady Yang, wept bitterly when saying farewell to her, but she responded, "How do you know that it is not my fortune to meet the Son of Heaven?" Lady Yang reportedly then understood her ambitions, and therefore stopped crying.
But Consort Wu did not appear to be much favored by Emperor Taizong, though it appears that she did have sexual relations with him at one point.See , for Chu Suiliang's assertion that she had "served" (a euphemism for sexual relations) Emperor Taizong when trying to stop Emperor Gaozong from creating her empress. According to her own account (given in a rebuke of Chancellor Ji Xu during her reign), she once impressed Taizong with her fortitude:
When Taizong died in 649, his youngest son, Li Zhi, whose mother was the main wife Wende, succeeded him as Emperor Gaozong. Li Zhi had had an affair with Wu when Taizong was still alive.
Taizong had 14 sons, including three by his beloved Empress Zhangsun (601–636), but none with Consort Wu. Thus, according to the custom by which consorts of deceased emperors who had not produced children were permanently confined to a monastic institution after the emperor's death, Wu was consigned to Ganye Temple () with the expectation that she would serve as a Buddhist nun there for the remainder of her life. After Taizong's death, Gaozong met her at the death anniversary of Taizong when he was offering incense. At the time, Consort Xiao and Empress Wang were fighting for the favour of Gaozong, and Wang asked Gaozong to bring Wu back into the palace, hoping to divert Gaozong's attention. Gaozong agreed and gave Wu the title Lady of Bright Deportment (). Soon, Gaozong became enamored with Wu, and both Wang and Xiao lost favor.
Rise to power