This page lists some links to ancient philosophy, namely philosophical thought extending as far as early post-classical history ().
Overview Genuine philosophical thought, depending upon original individual insights, arose in many cultures roughly contemporaneously. Karl Jaspers termed the intense period of philosophical development beginning around the 7th century BCE and concluding around the 3rd century BCE an Axial Age in human thought.
In Western philosophy, the spread of Christianity in the Roman Empire marked the ending of Hellenistic philosophy and ushered in the beginnings of medieval philosophy, whereas in the Middle East, the spread of Islam through the Arab Empire marked the end of Old Iranian philosophy and ushered in the beginnings of early Islamic philosophy.
Ancient Greek and Roman philosophy
Philosophers
Pre-Socratic philosophers Milesian School Thales (624 – c 546 BCE) Anaximander (610 – 546 BCE) Anaximenes of Miletus (c. 585 – c. 525 BCE) Pythagoreans Pythagoras (582 – 496 BCE) Philolaus (470 – 380 BCE) Alcmaeon of Croton Archytas (428 – 347 BCE) Heraclitus (535 – 475 BCE) Eleatic School Xenophanes (570 – 470 BCE) Parmenides (510 – 440 BCE) Zeno of Elea (490 – 430 BCE) Melissus of Samos (c. 470 BCE – ?) Pluralists Empedocles (490 – 430 BCE) Anaxagoras (500 – 428 BCE) Atomists Leucippus (first half of 5th century BCE) Democritus (460 – 370 BCE) Metrodorus of Chios (4th century BCE) Pherecydes of Syros (6th century BCE) Sophists Protagoras (490 – 420 BCE) Gorgias (487 – 376 BCE) Antiphon (480 – 411 BCE) Prodicus (465/450 – after 399 BCE) Hippias (middle of the 5th century BCE) Thrasymachus (459 – 400 BCE) Callicles Critias Lycophron Diogenes of Apollonia ( – ?)
Classical Greek philosophers Socrates (469 – 399 BCE) Euclid of Megara (450 – 380 BCE) Antisthenes (445 – 360 BCE) Aristippus (435 – 356 BCE) Plato (428 – 347 BCE) Speusippus (407 – 339 BCE) Diogenes of Sinope (400 – 325 BCE) Xenocrates (396 – 314 BCE) Aristotle (384 – 322 BCE) Stilpo (380 – 300 BCE) Theophrastus (370 – 288 BCE)
Hellenistic philosophy Pyrrho (365 – 275 BCE) Epicurus (341 – 270 BCE) Metrodorus of Lampsacus (the younger) (331 – 278 BCE) Zeno of Citium (333 – 263 BCE) Cleanthes ( – ) Timon (320 – 230 BCE) Arcesilaus (316 – 232 BCE) Menippus (3rd century BCE) Archimedes ( – 212 BCE) Chrysippus (280 – 207 BCE) Carneades (214 – 129 BCE) Clitomachus (187 – 109 BCE) Metrodorus of Stratonicea (late 2nd century BCE) Philo of Larissa (160 – 80 BCE) Posidonius (135 – 51 BCE) Antiochus of Ascalon (130 – 68 BCE) Aenesidemus (1st century BCE) Agrippa (1st century CE)
Hellenistic schools of thought Academic skepticism Cynicism Cyrenaicism Eclecticism Epicureanism Middle Platonism Neo-Platonism Neopythagoreanism Peripatetic School Pyrrhonism Stoicism Sophism
Early Roman and Christian philosophy
Neoplatonism in Christianity School of the Sextii
Philosophers during Roman times
Cicero (106 – 43 BCE) Lucretius (94 – 55 BCE) Seneca (4 BCE – 65 CE) Musonius Rufus (30 – 100 CE) Plutarch (45 – 120 CE) Epictetus (55 – 135 CE) Favorinus ( – ) Marcus Aurelius (121 – 180 CE) Clement of Alexandria (150 – 215 CE) Alcinous (philosopher) (2nd century CE) Sextus Empiricus (3rd century CE) Alexander of Aphrodisias (3rd century CE) Ammonius Saccas (3rd century CE) Plotinus (205 – 270 CE) Porphyry (232 – 304 CE) Iamblichus (242 – 327 CE) Themistius (317 – 388 CE) Ambrose (340 – 397 CE) Hypatia of Alexandria (350 – 415 CE) Augustine of Hippo (354 – 430 CE) Proclus (411 – 485 CE) Damascius (462 – 540 CE) Boethius (472 – 524 CE) Simplicius of Cilicia (490 – 560 CE) John Philoponus (490 – 570 CE)
Ancient Iranian philosophy
See also: Dualism, Dualism (philosophy of mind)
While there are ancient relations between the Indian Vedas and the Iranian Avesta, the two main families of the Indo-Iranian philosophical traditions were characterized by fundamental differences in their implications for the human being's position in society and their view of man's role in the universe. The first charter of human rights by Cyrus the Great as understood in the Cyrus cylinder is often seen as a reflection of the questions and thoughts expressed by Zarathustra and developed in Zoroastrian schools of thought of the Achaemenid Era of Iranian history.Philip G. Kreyenbroek: "Morals and Society in Zoroastrian Philosophy" in "Persian Philosophy". Companion Encyclopedia of Asian Philosophy: Brian Carr and Indira Mahalingam. Routledge, 2009.Mary Boyce: "The Origins of Zoroastrian Philosophy" in "Persian Philosophy". Companion Encyclopedia of Asian Philosophy: Brian Carr and Indira Mahalingam. Routledge, 2009.
Schools of thought Ideas and tenets of Zoroastrian schools of Early Persian philosophy are part of many works written in Middle Persian and of the extant scriptures of the Zoroastrian religion in Avestan language. Among these are treatises such as the Shikand-gumanic Vichar by Mardan-Farrux Ohrmazddadan, selections of Denkard, Wizidagīhā-ī Zātspram ("Selections of Zātspram") as well as older passages of the book Avesta, the Gathas which are attributed to Zarathustra himself and regarded as his "direct teachings".An Anthology of Philosophy in Persia. From Zoroaster to 'Umar Khayyam. S. H. Nasr & M. Aminrazavi. I. B. Tauris Publishers, London & New York, 2008. .
Zoroastrianism Zarathustra Jamasp Ostanes Mardan-Farrux OhrmazddadanZurvan. A Zoroastrian Dilemma. Robert Charles Zaehner. Biblo and Tannen, 1972. . Adurfarnbag FarroxzadanSasanian Iran - intellectual life. A. Tafazzoli and A. L. Khromov in: History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The Crossroads of Civilization. B. A. Litvinsky, Zhang Guand-Da, R. Shabani Samghabadi. Unesco, 1996. . Adurbad Emedan Avesta Gathas Anacharsis
Pre-Manichaean thought BardesanesMansour Shaki. Falsafa. Philosophy in the pre-Islamic period. Encyclopædia Iranica. Volume IX. 1999. .Prods Oktor Skjaervo. Bardesanes. Encyclopædia Iranica. Volume III. Fasc. 7–8. .
Manichaeism Mani ( – 276 CE) AmmoDavid A. Scott. Manichaean Views of Buddhism in: History of Religions. Vol. 25, No. 2, Nov. 1985. University of Chicago Press.
Mazdakism Mazdak the ElderYarshater, Ehsan. 1983. The Cambridge history of Iran, volume 2. pp. 995–997 Mazdak (died c. 524 or 528 CE)
Zurvanism Aesthetic Zurvanism Materialist Zurvanism Fatalistic Zurvanism
Philosophy and the Empire Political philosophy Tansar University of Gundishapur Borzouye Bakhtshooa Gondishapuri Emperor Khosrau's philosophical discourses Paul the Persian
Literature Pahlavi literature
Ancient Jewish philosophy
Qohelet () Pseudo-Aristeas () Ben Sira (fl. 180–175 BCE) Aristobulus of Alexandria (181–124 BCE) Philo of Alexandria (30 BCE – 45 CE) Wisdom of Solomon () 4 Maccabees () Rabbi Akiva ( – )
Ancient Indian philosophy
The ancient Indian philosophy is a fusion of two ancient traditions: the Vedic tradition and the śramaṇa tradition.
Vedic philosophy Indian philosophy begins with the Vedas wherein questions pertaining to laws of nature, the origin of the universe, and the place of man in it are asked. In the famous Rigvedic Hymn of Creation (Nasadiya Sukta) the poet asks: "Whence all creation had its origin, he, whether he fashioned it or whether he did not, he, who surveys it all from highest heaven, he knows—or maybe even he does not know."
In the Vedic view, creation is ascribed to the self-consciousness of the primeval being (Purusha). This leads to the inquiry into the one being that underlies the diversity of empirical phenomena and the origin of all things. Cosmic order is termed rta and causal law by karma. Nature (prakriti) is taken to have three qualities (sattva, rajas, and tamas). Vedas Upanishads Hindu philosophy
Sramana philosophy
Jainism and Buddhism are a continuation of the Sramana school of thought. The Sramanas cultivated a pessimistic worldview of the samsara as full of suffering and advocated renunciation and austerities. They laid stress on philosophical concepts like Ahimsa, Karma, Jnana, Samsara and Moksa. Cārvāka (Sanskrit: चार्वाक) (atheist) philosophy, also known as Lokāyata, it is a system of Hindu philosophy that assumes various forms of philosophical skepticism and religious indifference. It is named after its founder, Cārvāka, author of the Bārhaspatya-sūtras.
Classical Indian philosophy In classical times, these inquiries were systematized in six schools of philosophy. Some of the questions asked were: What is the ontological nature of consciousness? How is cognition itself experienced? Is mind (chit) intentional or not? Does cognition have its own structure?
The six schools of Indian philosophy are: Nyaya Vaisheshika Samkhya Yoga Mimamsa (Purva Mimamsa) Vedanta (Uttara Mimamsa)
Ancient Indian philosophers
1st millennium BCE Parashara – writer of Viṣṇu Purāṇa.
Philosophers of Vedic Age (c. 1500 – c. 600 BCE) Rishi Narayana – seer of the Purusha Sukta of the Rig Veda.The significance of Purusha Sukta in Daily Invocations by Swami Krishnananda Seven Rishis – Atri, Bharadwaja, Gautama, Jamadagni, Kasyapa, Vasishtha, Viswamitra.P. 285 Indian sociology through Ghurye, a dictionary By S. Devadas Pillai Other Vedic Rishis – Gritsamada, Sandilya, Kanva etc. Rishaba – Rishi mentioned in Rig Veda and later in several Puranas, and believed by Jains to be the first official religious guru of Jainism, as accredited by later followers. Yajnavalkya – one of the Vedic sages, greatly influenced Buddhistic thought. Lopamudra Gargi Vachaknavi Maitreyi Parshvanatha Ghosha Angiras – one of the seers of the Atharva Veda and author of Mundaka Upanishad. Uddalaka Aruni – an Upanishadic sage who authored major portions of Chāndogya Upaniṣad. Ashvapati – a King in the Later Vedic age who authored Vaishvanara Vidya of Chāndogya Upaniṣad. Ashtavakra – an Upanishadic Sage mentioned in the Mahabharata, who authored Ashtavakra Gita.
Philosophers of Axial Age (600–185 BCE) Gotama (), logician, author of Nyaya Sutra Kanada (), founded the philosophical school of Vaisheshika, gave theory of atomism Mahavira (599–527 BCE) – heavily influenced Jainism, the 24th Tirthankara of Jainism. Purana Kassapa Ajita Kesakambali Payasi Makkhali Gośāla Sañjaya Belaṭṭhiputta Mahavira Dandamis Nagasena Lakulisha
Pakudha Kaccayana Pāṇini (520–460 BCE), grammarian, author of Ashtadhyayi Kapila (), proponent of the Samkhya system of philosophy. Badarayana (lived between 500 BCE and 400 BCE) – Author of Brahma Sutras. Jaimini (), author of Purva Mimamsa Sutras. Pingala (), author of the Chandas shastra Gautama Buddha ( – ), founder of Buddhist school of thought Śāriputra Chanakya ( – ), author of Arthashastra, professor (acharya) of political science at the Takshashila University Patañjali (), developed the philosophy of Raja Yoga in his Yoga Sutras. Shvetashvatara – Author of earliest textual exposition of a systematic philosophy of Shaivism.
Philosophers of Golden Age (184 BCE – 600 CE) Aśvaghoṣa, believed to have been the first Sanskrit dramatist, and is considered the greatest Indian poet before Kālidāsa Vatsyana, known for "Kama Sutra" Samantabhadra, a proponent of the Jaina doctrine of Anekantavada Isvarakrsna Aryadeva, a student of Nagarjuna and contributed significantly to the Madhyamaka Dharmakirti Haribhadra Pujyapada Buddhaghosa Kamandaka Maticandra Prashastapada Bhāviveka Dharmapala Udyotakara Gaudapada Valluvar (), wrote the Kural text, a Tamil-language treatise on morality and secular ethics Dignāga (), one of the founders of Buddhist school of Indian logic Asanga (), exponent of the Yogacara Bhartrihari (–510 CE), early figure in Indic linguistic theory Bodhidharma (–528 CE), founder of the Zen school of Buddhism